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Richard I (8 September 1157 - 6 April 1199) was King of England from 6 July 1189 until his death. He also ruled as Duke of Normandy (as Richard IV), Duke of Aquitaine, Duke of Gascony, Lord of Cyprus, Count of Anjou, Count of Maine, Count of Nantes, and Overlord of Brittany at various times during the same period. He was the third of five sons of King Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was known as Richard Cœur de Lion, or mainly Richard the Lionheart, even before his accession, because of his reputation as a great military leader and warrior.[1] The Muslims called him Melek-Ric (King Richard) or Malek al-Inkitar - King of England.[2] By the age of 16, Richard the Lionheart had taken command of his own army, putting down rebellions in Poitou against his father, King Henry II.[1] Richard was a central Christian commander during the Third Crusade, leading the campaign after the departure of Philip II of France and scoring considerable victories against his Muslim counterpart, Saladin, although he did not reconquer Jerusalem from Saladin.[3] Richard spoke langue d'oïl, a French dialect, and Occitan, a Romance language spoken in southern France and nearby regions.[4] He lived in his Duchy of Aquitaine in the southwest of France and spent very little time in England, preferring to use his kingdom as a source of revenue to support his armies.[5] He was seen as a pious hero by his subjects.[6] He remains one of the few kings of England remembered by his epithet, rather than regnal number, and is an enduring iconic figure in England and France.[7] Early life and accession in Aquitaine Family and youth Richard was born on 8 September 1157,[8] probably at Beaumont Palace,[9] in Oxford, England. He was a younger brother of Count William IX of Poitiers; Henry the Young King and Duchess Matilda of Saxony.[10] As the third legitimate son of King Henry II of England, he was not expected to ascend the throne.[11] He was also an elder brother of Duke Geoffrey II of Brittany; Queen Eleanor of Castile; Queen Joan of Sicily; and Count John of Mortain, who succeeded him as king. Richard was the younger maternal half-brother of Countess Marie of Champagne and Countess Alix of Blois.[10] Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine's oldest son, William, died in 1156, before Richard's birth.[10] Richard is often depicted as having been the favourite son of his mother Eleanor of Aquitaine.[12] His father, Henry, was Norman-Angevin and great-grandson of William the Conqueror. Contemporary historian Ralph of Diceto traced his family's lineage through Matilda of Scotland to the Anglo-Saxon kings of England and Alfred the Great, and from there linked them to Noah and Woden. According to Angevin legend, there was even infernal blood in the family.[9] While his father visited his lands from Scotland to France, Richard probably spent his childhood in England. His first recorded visit to the European continent was in May 1165, when his mother took him to Normandy.[13] He was wet-nursed by a woman called Hodierna, and when he became king he gave her a generous pension.[14] Little is known about Richard's education.[15] Although born in Oxford and raised in England up to his eighth year, it is not known to what extent he used or understood English; he was an educated man who composed poetry and wrote in Limousin (lenga d'òc) and also in French.[16] A number of authors have speculated that Richard did not know the English language, however the evidence available to historians does not provide a definitive case for this assumption. There are no contemporary accounts that state that Richard was ignorant of the language. Indeed, during Richard's captivity English prejudice against foreigners was used in a calculated way by his brother John to help destroy the authority of Richard's chancellor, William Longchamp, who was a Norman. One of the specific charges laid against Longchamp, by John's supporter Hugh, Bishop of Coventry, was that he could not speak English. This indicates that by the late 12th century a knowledge of English was expected of those in positions of authority in England.[17][18] Richard was said to be very attractive; his hair was between red and blond, and he was light-eyed with a pale complexion. He was apparently of above average height: according to Clifford Brewer he was 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m)[19] As with his supposed lack of English, the question of his stature is one made from a lack of evidence as his remains have been lost since at least the French Revolution, and his exact height is unknown. John, his brother (by the same father and mother), was known to be only 5 feet 5 inches (1.65 m). The Itinerarium peregrinorum et gesta regis Ricardi, a Latin prose narrative of the Third Crusade, states that: "He was tall, of elegant build; the colour of his hair was between red and gold; his limbs were supple and straight. He had long arms suited to wielding a sword. His long legs matched the rest of his body."[citation needed] From an early age he showed significant political and military ability, becoming noted for his chivalry and courage as he fought to control the rebellious nobles of his own territory. His elder brother Henry was crowned king of England during his father's lifetime. Marriage alliances were common among medieval royalty: they led to political alliances and peace treaties, and allowed families to stake claims of succession on each other's lands. In March 1159 it was arranged that Richard would marry one of the daughters of Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona; however, these arrangements failed, and the marriage never took place. Richard's older brother Henry was married to Margaret, daughter of Louis VII of France, on 2 November 1160.[20] Despite this alliance between the Plantagenets and the Capetians, the dynasty on the French throne, the two houses were sometimes in conflict. In 1168, the intercession of Pope Alexander III was necessary to secure a truce between them. Henry II had conquered Brittany and taken control of Gisors and the Vexin, which had been part of Margaret's dowry.[21] Early in the 1160s there had been suggestions Richard should marry Alys (Alice), fourth daughter of Louis VII; because of the rivalry between the kings of England and France, Louis obstructed the marriage. A peace treaty was secured in January 1169 and Richard's betrothal to Alys was confirmed.[22] Henry II planned to divide his and his wife's territories between their sons, of which there were three at the time; Henry would become King of England and have control of Anjou, Maine, and Normandy, while Richard would inherit Aquitaine from his mother and become Count of Poitiers, and Geoffrey would get Brittany through marriage alliance with Constance, heiress apparent to the region as the daughter, and only child, of Conan IV, Duke of Brittany. At the ceremony where Richard's betrothal was confirmed, he paid homage to the King of France for Aquitaine, thus securing ties of vassalage between the two.[23] After he fell seriously ill in 1170, Henry II put in place his plan to divide his kingdom, although he would retain overall authority of his sons and their territories. In 1171 Richard left for Aquitaine with his mother and Henry II gave him the duchy of Aquitaine at the request of Eleanor.[24] Richard and his mother embarked on a tour of Aquitaine in 1171 in an attempt to placate the locals.[25] Together they laid the foundation stone of St Augustine's Monastery in Limoges. In June 1172 Richard was formally recognised as the Duke of Aquitaine when he was granted the lance and banner emblems of his office; the ceremony took place in Poitiers and was repeated in Limoges where he wore the ring of St Valerie, who was the personification of Aquitaine.[26] Revolt against Henry II According to Ralph of Coggeshall, Henry the Young King instigated rebellion against Henry II; he wanted to reign independently over at least part of the territory his father had promised him, and to break away from his dependence on Henry II, who controlled the purse strings.[27] Jean Flori, a historian who specialises in the medieval period, believes that Eleanor manipulated her sons to revolt against their father.[28] Henry the Young King abandoned his father and left for the French court, seeking the protection of Louis VII; his younger brothers, Richard and Geoffrey, soon followed him, while the five-year old John remained with Henry II. Louis gave his support to the three sons and even knighted Richard, tying them together through vassalage.[29] Jordan Fantosme, a contemporary poet, described the rebellion as a "war without love".[30] The three brothers made an oath at the French court that they would not make terms with Henry II without the consent of Louis VII and the French barons.[32] With the support of Louis, Henry the Young King attracted many barons to his cause through promises of land and money; one such baron was Philip, Count of Flanders, who was promised £1,000 and several castles. The brothers had supporters in England, ready to rise up; led by Robert de Beaumont, 3rd Earl of Leicester, the rebellion in England from Hugh Bigod, 1st Earl of Norfolk, Hugh de Kevelioc, 5th Earl of Chester, and William I of Scotland. The alliance was initially successful, and by July 1173 they were besieging Aumale, Neuf-Marché, and Verneuil and Hugh de Kevelioc had captured Dol in Brittany.[33] Richard went to Poitou and raised the barons who were loyal to himself and his mother in rebellion against his father. Eleanor was captured, so Richard was left to lead his campaign against Henry II's supporters in Aquitaine on his own. He marched to take La Rochelle, but was rejected by the inhabitants; he withdrew to the city of Saintes which he established as a base of operations.[34][35] In the meantime Henry II had raised a very expensive army of over 20,000 mercenaries with which to face the rebellion.[33] He marched on Verneuil, and Louis retreated from his forces. The army proceeded to recapture Dol and subdued Brittany. At this point Henry II made an offer of peace to his sons; on the advice of Louis the offer was refused.[36] Henry II's forces took Saintes by surprise and captured much of its garrison, although Richard was able to escape with a small group of soldiers. He took refuge in Château de Taillebourg for the rest of the war.[34] Henry the Young King and the Count of Flanders planned to land in England to assist the rebellion led by the Earl of Leicester. Anticipating this, Henry II returned to England with 500 soldiers and his prisoners (including Eleanor and his sons' wives and fiancées),[37] but on his arrival found out that the rebellion had already collapsed. William I of Scotland and Hugh Bigod were captured on 13 and 25 July respectively. Henry II returned to France where he raised the siege of Rouen, where Louis VII had been joined by Henry the Young King after he had abandoned his plan to invade England. Louis was defeated and a peace treaty was signed in September 1174,[36] with the Treaty of Montlouis.[38] When Henry II and Louis VII made a truce on 8 September 1174, its terms specifically excluded Richard.[37][39] Abandoned by Louis and wary of facing his father's army in battle, Richard went to Henry II's court at Poitiers on 23 September and begged for forgiveness, weeping and falling at the feet of Henry, who gave Richard the kiss of peace.[37][39] Several days later, Richard's brothers joined him in seeking reconciliation with their father.[37] The terms the three brothers accepted were less generous than those they had been offered earlier in the conflict (when Richard was offered four castles in Aquitaine and half of the income from the duchy)[32] and Richard was given control of two castles in Poitou and half the income of Aquitaine; Henry the Young King was given two castles in Normandy; and Geoffrey was permitted half of Brittany. Eleanor remained Henry II's prisoner until his death, partly as insurance for Richard's good behaviour.[40] Under Henry II's reign After the conclusion of the war, the process of pacifying the provinces that had rebelled against Henry II had begun. He travelled to Anjou for this purpose and Geoffrey dealt with Brittany. In January 1175 Richard was dispatched to Aquitaine to punish the barons who had fought for him. According to Roger of Howden's chronicle of Henry's reign, most of the castles belonging to rebels were to be returned to the state they were in 15 days before the outbreak of war, while others were to be razed.[41] Given that by this time it was common for castles to be built in stone, and that many barons had expanded or refortified their castles, this was not an easy task.[42] Gillingham notes that Roger of Howden's chronicle is the main source for Richard's activities in this period, although he notes that it records the successes of the campaign;[41] it was on this campaign that Richard acquired the name "Richard the Lionheart."[42] The first such success was the siege of Castillon-sur-Agen. The castle was "notoriously strong," but in a two-month siege the defenders were battered into submission by Richard's siege engines.[43] Henry seemed unwilling to entrust any of his sons with resources that could be used against him. It was suspected that Henry had appropriated Princess Alys, Richard's betrothed, the daughter of Louis VII of France by his second wife, as his mistress. This made a marriage between Richard and Alys technically impossible in the eyes of the Church, but Henry prevaricated: Alys's dowry, the Vexin, was valuable. Richard was discouraged from renouncing Alys because she was the sister of King Philip II of France, a close ally.[citation needed] After his failure to overthrow his father, Richard concentrated on putting down internal revolts by the nobles of Aquitaine, especially the territory of Gascony. The increasing cruelty of his reign led to a major revolt there in 1179. Hoping to dethrone Richard, the rebels sought the help of his brothers Henry and Geoffrey. The turning point came in the Charente Valley in spring 1179. The fortress of Taillebourg was well-defended and was considered impregnable. The castle was surrounded by a cliff on three sides and a town on the fourth side with a three-layer wall. Richard first destroyed and looted the farms and lands surrounding the fortress, leaving its defenders no reinforcements or lines of retreat. The garrison sallied out of the castle and attacked Richard; he was able to subdue the army and then followed the defenders inside the open gates, where he easily took over the castle in two days. Richard's victory at Taillebourg deterred many barons thinking of rebelling and forced them to declare their loyalty to him. It also won Richard a reputation as a skilled military commander. In 1181-1182 Richard faced a revolt over the succession to the county of Angoulême. His opponents turned to Philip II of France for support, and the fighting spread through the Limousin and Périgord. Richard was accused of numerous cruelties against his subjects, including rape.[44] However, with support from his father and from the Young King, Richard succeeded in bringing the Viscount Aimar V of Limoges and Count Elie of Périgord to terms. After Richard subdued his rebellious barons he again challenged his father for the throne. From 1180 to 1183 the tension between Henry and Richard grew, as King Henry commanded Richard to pay homage to Henry the Young King, but Richard refused. Finally, in 1183 Henry the Young King and Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany invaded Aquitaine in an attempt to subdue Richard. Richard's barons joined in the fray and turned against their duke. However, Richard and his army were able to hold back the invading armies, and they executed any prisoners. The conflict took a brief pause in June 1183 when the Young King died. With the death of Henry the Young King, Richard became the eldest son and so heir to the English crown. King Henry demanded that Richard give up Aquitaine (which he was planning to give to his youngest son John as his inheritance). Richard refused, and conflict continued between them. Henry II soon gave John permission to invade Aquitaine. To strengthen his position, in 1187, Richard allied himself with 22-year-old Philip II, the son of Eleanor's ex-husband Louis VII by Adele of Champagne. Roger of Hoveden wrote: The King of England was struck with great astonishment, and wondered what [this alliance] could mean, and, taking precautions for the future, frequently sent messengers into France for the purpose of recalling his son Richard; who, pretending that he was peaceably inclined and ready to come to his father, made his way to Chinon, and, in spite of the person who had the custody thereof, carried off the greater part of his father's treasures, and fortified his castles in Poitou with the same, refusing to go to his father.[45] Overall, Hoveden is chiefly concerned with the politics of the relationship between Richard and King Philip. The historian John Gillingham has addressed theories suggesting that this political relationship was also sexually intimate, which he posits probably stemmed from an official record announcing that, as a symbol of unity between the two countries, the kings of England and France had slept overnight in the same bed. Gillingham has characterized this as "an accepted political act, nothing sexual about it;... a bit like a modern-day photo opportunity."[46] In exchange for Philip's help against his father, Richard promised to concede to him his rights to both Normandy and Anjou. Richard paid homage to Philip in November of the same year. With news arriving of the Battle of Hattin, he took the cross at Tours in the company of other French nobles. In 1188 Henry II planned to concede Aquitaine to his youngest son John. The following year, Richard attempted to take the throne of England for himself by joining Philip's expedition against his father. On 4 July 1189, Richard and Philip's forces defeated Henry's army at Ballans. Henry, with John's consent, agreed to name Richard his heir apparent. Two days later Henry II died in Chinon, and Richard succeeded him as King of England, Duke of Normandy, and Count of Anjou. Roger of Hoveden claimed that Henry's corpse bled from the nose in Richard's presence, which was taken as a sign that Richard had caused his death. King and Crusader Coronation and anti-Jewish violence Richard I was officially invested as duke of Normandy on 20 July 1189 and was crowned king in Westminster Abbey on 3 September 1189.[47] When he was crowned, Richard barred all Jews and women from the ceremony, but some Jewish leaders arrived to present gifts for the new king.[48] According to Ralph of Diceto, Richard's courtiers stripped and flogged the Jews, then flung them out of court.[49] When a rumour spread that Richard had ordered all Jews to be killed, the people of London began a massacre.[49] Many Jews were beaten to death, robbed, and burned alive.[49] Many Jewish homes were burned down, and several Jews were forcibly baptised.[49] Some sought sanctuary in the Tower of London, and others managed to escape. Among those killed was Jacob of Orléans, a respected Jewish scholar.[50] Roger of Hoveden, in his Gesta Regis Ricardi, claimed that the rioting was started by the jealous and bigoted citizens, and that Richard punished the perpetrators, allowing a forcibly converted Jew to return to his native religion. Baldwin of Forde, Archbishop of Canterbury, reacted by remarking, "If the King is not God's man, he had better be the devil's".[51] Realising that the assaults could destabilise his realm on the eve of his departure on crusade, Richard ordered the execution of those responsible for the most egregious murders and persecutions, including rioters who had accidentally burned down Christian homes.[52] He distributed a royal writ demanding that the Jews be left alone. The edict was loosely enforced, however, and the following March there was further violence including a massacre at York. Crusade plans Richard had already taken the cross as Count of Poitou in 1187. His father and Philip II had done so at Gisors on 21 January 1188 after receiving news of the fall of Jerusalem to Saladin. Having become king, Richard, together with Philip, agreed to go on the Third Crusade, since each feared that during his absence, the other might usurp his territories.[53] Richard swore an oath to renounce his past wickedness in order to show himself worthy to take the cross. He started to raise and equip a new crusader army. He spent most of his father's treasury (filled with money raised by the Saladin tithe), raised taxes, and even agreed to free King William I of Scotland from his oath of subservience to Richard in exchange for 10,000 marks. To raise still more finances he sold official positions, rights, and lands to those interested in them.[54] Those already appointed were forced to pay huge sums to retain their posts. William Longchamp, Bishop of Ely and the King's Chancellor, made a show of bidding £3,000 to remain as Chancellor. He was apparently outbid by a certain Reginald the Italian, but that bid was refused. Richard made some final arrangements on the continent.[55] He reconfirmed his father's appointment of William Fitz Ralph to the important post of seneschal of Normandy. In Anjou, Stephen of Tours was replaced as seneschal and temporarily imprisoned for fiscal mismanagement. Payn de Rochefort, an Angevin knight, was elevated to the post of seneschal of Anjou. In Poitou the ex-provost of Benon, Peter Bertin, was made seneschal, and finally in Gascony the household official Helie de La Celle was picked for the seneschalship there. After repositioning the part of his army he left behind to guard his French possessions, Richard finally set out on the crusade in summer 1190.[55] (His delay was criticised by troubadours such as Bertran de Born.) He appointed as regents Hugh de Puiset, Bishop of Durham, and William de Mandeville, 3rd Earl of Essex-who soon died and was replaced by Richard's chancellor William Longchamp.[56] Richard's brother John was not satisfied by this decision and started scheming against William. When Richard was raising funds for his crusade, he was said to declare, "I would have sold London if I could find a buyer."[57] Occupation of Sicily In September 1190 Richard and Philip arrived in Sicily.[58] After the death of King William II of Sicily his cousin Tancred of Lecce had seized power and had been crowned early in 1190 as King Tancred I of Sicily, although the legal heir was William's aunt Constance, wife of the new Emperor Henry VI. Tancred had imprisoned William's widow, Queen Joan, who was Richard's sister, and did not give her the money she had inherited in William's will. When Richard arrived he demanded that his sister be released and given her inheritance; she was freed on 28 September, but without the inheritance.[59] The presence of foreign troops also caused unrest: in October, the people of Messina revolted, demanding that the foreigners leave.[60] Richard attacked Messina, capturing it on 4 October 1190.[60] After looting and burning the city Richard established his base there, but this created tension between Richard and Philip Augustus. He remained there until Tancred finally agreed to sign a treaty on 4 March 1191. The treaty was signed by Richard, Philip and Tancred.[61] Its main terms were: Joan was to receive 20,000 ounces of gold as compensation for her inheritance, which Tancred kept. Richard officially proclaimed his nephew, Arthur of Brittany, son of Geoffrey, as his heir, and Tancred promised to marry one of his daughters to Arthur when he came of age, giving a further twenty thousand ounces of gold that would be returned by Richard if Arthur did not marry Tancred's daughter. The two kings stayed on in Sicily for a while, but this resulted in increasing tensions between them and their men, with Philip Augustus plotting with Tancred against Richard.[62] The two kings finally met to clear the air and reached an agreement, including the end of Richard's betrothal to Philip's sister Alys (who had supposedly been the mistress of Richard's father Henry II).[63] Conquest of Cyprus In April 1191 Richard, with a large fleet, left Messina in order to reach Acre.[64] But a storm dispersed the fleet. After some searching, it was discovered that the boat carrying his sister and his fiancée Berengaria was anchored on the south coast of Cyprus together with the wrecks of several other ships, including the treasure ship. Survivors of the wrecks had been taken prisoner by the island's despot Isaac Komnenos.[65] On 1 May 1191 Richard's fleet arrived in the port of Lemesos (Limassol) on Cyprus.[65] He ordered Isaac to release the prisoners and the treasure.[65] Isaac refused, so Richard landed his troops and took Limassol.[66] Various princes of the Holy Land arrived in Limassol at the same time, in particular Guy of Lusignan. All declared their support for Richard provided that he support Guy against his rival Conrad of Montferrat.[67] The local barons abandoned Isaac, who considered making peace with Richard, joining him on the crusade and offering his daughter in marriage to the person named by Richard.[68] But Isaac changed his mind and tried to escape. Richard then proceeded to conquer the whole island, his troops being led by Guy de Lusignan. Isaac surrendered and was confined with silver chains because Richard had promised that he would not place him in irons. By 1 June Richard had conquered the whole island. He named Richard de Camville and Robert of Thornham as governors. He later sold the island to the Knights Templar and it was subsequently acquired, in 1192, by Guy of Lusignan and became a stable feudal kingdom.[69] The rapid conquest of the island by Richard is more important than it seems. The island occupies a key strategic position on the maritime lanes to the Holy Land, whose occupation by the Christians could not continue without support from the sea.[69] Cyprus remained a Christian stronghold until the battle of Lepanto (1571).[70] Richard's exploit was well publicised and contributed to his reputation. Richard also derived significant financial gains from the conquest of the island.[70] Richard left for Acre on 5 June with his allies.[70] Marriage and sexuality Before leaving Cyprus, Richard married Berengaria of Navarre, first-born daughter of King Sancho VI of Navarre. Richard first grew closer to her at a tournament held in Berengaria's native Navarre.[71] The wedding was held in Limassol on 12 May 1191 at the Chapel of St. George. It was attended by his sister Joan, whom Richard had brought from Sicily. The marriage was celebrated with great pomp and splendour and many feasts and entertainments, and public parades, and celebrations followed, to commemorate the event. Among the other grand ceremonies was a double coronation. Richard caused himself to be crowned King of Cyprus, and Berengaria Queen of England and of Cyprus, too. When Richard married Berengaria he was still officially betrothed to Alys, and Richard pushed for the match in order to obtain Navarre as a fief like Aquitaine for his father. Further, Eleanor championed the match, as Navarre bordered on Aquitaine, thereby securing her ancestral lands' borders to the south. Richard took his new wife with him briefly on this episode of the crusade. However, they returned separately. Berengaria had almost as much difficulty in making the journey home as her husband did, and she did not see England until after his death. After his release from German captivity Richard showed some regret for his earlier conduct, but he was not reunited with his wife.[72] The marriage remained childless. More broadly, since the 1950s Richard's sexuality has become an issue of wider interest and controversy. Victorian and Edwardian historians had rarely addressed this question, but in 1948 historian John Harvey challenged what he perceived as "the conspiracy of silence" surrounding Richard's homosexuality.[73] This argument drew primarily on available chronicler accounts of Richard's behaviour, chronicler records of Richard's two public confessions and penitences, and Richard's childless marriage.[74] Roger of Hovedon relates a hermit who warned, "Be thou mindful of the destruction of Sodom, and abstain from what is unlawful", and Richard thus "receiving absolution, took back his wife, whom for a long time he had not known, and putting away all illicit intercourse, he remained constant to his wife and the two become one flesh.[75] This material is complicated by accounts of Richard having had at least one illegitimate child (Philip of Cognac), and allegations that Richard had sexual relations with local women during his campaigns.[76] Leading historians remain divided on the question of Richard's sexuality.[77] Harvey's argument has gained support;[78] however, this view has been disputed by other historians, most notably John Gillingham.[79] Drawing on other chronicler accounts, he argues that Richard was probably heterosexual.[79] Historian Jean Flori claims that contemporary historians generally accept that Richard was predominantly homosexual.[78][80] Flori also analysed contemporaneous accounts; he refuted Gillingham's arguments and concluded that Richard's two public confessions and penitences (in 1191 and 1195) must have referred to the "sin of sodomy".[81] Flori cites contemporaneous accounts of Richard taking women by force[82] and concludes that Richard probably had sexual relations with both men and women at different stages.[83] However, Flori and Gillingham are nevertheless in agreement that contemporaneous accounts do not support the suggestion that Richard had a sexual relationship with King Philip II of France, as suggested by some modern authors.[84] In the Holy Land King Richard landed at Acre on 8 June 1191. He gave his support to his Poitevin vassal Guy of Lusignan, who had brought troops to help him in Cyprus. Guy was the widower of his father's cousin Sibylla of Jerusalem and was trying to retain the kingship of Jerusalem, despite his wife's death during the Siege of Acre the previous year. Guy's claim was challenged by Conrad of Montferrat, second husband of Sibylla's half-sister, Isabella: Conrad, whose defence of Tyre had saved the kingdom in 1187, was supported by Philip of France, son of his first cousin Louis VII of France, and by another cousin, Duke Leopold V of Austria. Richard also allied with Humphrey IV of Toron, Isabella's first husband, from whom she had been forcibly divorced in 1190. Humphrey was loyal to Guy and spoke Arabic fluently, so Richard used him as a translator and negotiator. Richard and his forces aided in the capture of Acre, despite the king's serious illness. At one point, while sick from scurvy, Richard is said to have picked off guards on the walls with a crossbow, while being carried on a stretcher. Eventually Conrad of Montferrat concluded the surrender negotiations with Saladin and raised the banners of the kings in the city. Richard quarrelled with Leopold V of Austria over the deposition of Isaac Komnenos (related to Leopold's Byzantine mother) and his position within the crusade. Leopold's banner had been raised alongside the English and French standards. This was interpreted as arrogance by both Richard and Philip, as Leopold was a vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor (although he was the highest-ranking surviving leader of the imperial forces). Richard's men tore the flag down and threw it in the moat of Acre. Leopold left the crusade immediately. Philip also left soon afterwards, in poor health and after further disputes with Richard over the status of Cyprus (Philip demanded half the island) and the kingship of Jerusalem. Richard, suddenly, found himself without allies. Richard had kept 2,700 Muslim prisoners as hostages against Saladin fulfilling all the terms of the surrender of the lands around Acre. Philip, before leaving, had entrusted his prisoners to Conrad, but Richard forced him to hand them over to him. Richard feared his forces being bottled up in Acre as he believed his campaign could not advance with the prisoners in train. He therefore ordered all the prisoners executed. He then moved south, defeating Saladin's forces at the Battle of Arsuf on 7 September 1191. In November of 1191, following the fall of Jaffa, the Crusader army advanced inland towards Jerusalem. The army then marched to Beit Nuba, only 12 miles from Jerusalem. Muslim morale in Jerusalem was so low that the arrival of the Crusaders would probably have caused the city to fall quickly. However, the weather was appallingly bad, cold with heavy rain and hailstorms; this, combined with the fear that the Crusader army, if it besieged Jerusalem, might be trapped by a relieving force, caused the decision to retreat back to the coast to be made.[85] He attempted to negotiate with Saladin, but, this was unsuccessful. In the first half of 1192 he and his troops refortified Ascalon. An election forced Richard to accept Conrad of Montferrat as King of Jerusalem, and he sold Cyprus to his defeated protégé, Guy. Only days later, on 28 April 1192, Conrad was stabbed to death by Hashshashin (Assassins) before he could be crowned. Eight days later Richard's own nephew Henry II of Champagne was married to the widowed Isabella, although she was carrying Conrad's child. The murder has never been conclusively solved, and Richard's contemporaries widely suspected his involvement. The Crusader army made another advance on Jerusalem, and in June 1192 it came within sight of the city before being forced to retreat once again, this time because of dissension amongst its leaders. In particular, Richard and the majority of the army council wanted to force Saladin to relinquish Jerusalem by attacking the basis of his power through an invasion of Egypt. The leader of the French contingent, the Duke of Burgundy, however, was adamant that a direct attack on Jerusalem should be made. This split the Crusader army into two factions, neither of which was strong enough to achieve its objective. Richard stated that he would accompany any attack on Jerusalem but only as a simple soldier, he refused to lead the army. Without a united command the army had little choice but to retreat back to the coast.[86] There commenced a period of minor skirmishes with Saladin's forces, punctuated by another defeat in the field for the Ayyubid army at the Battle of Jaffa, while Richard and Saladin negotiated a settlement to the conflict. Both sides realised that their respective positions were growing untenable. Richard knew that both Philip and his own brother John were starting to plot against him, and the morale of Saladin's army had been badly eroded by repeated defeats. However, Saladin insisted on the razing of Ascalon's fortifications, which Richard's men had rebuilt, and a few other points. Richard made one last attempt to strengthen his bargaining position by attempting to invade Egypt-Saladin's chief supply-base-but failed. In the end, time ran out for Richard. He realised that his return could be postponed no longer since both Philip and John were taking advantage of his absence. He and Saladin finally came to a settlement on 2 September 1192; this included the provisions demanding the destruction of Ascalon's fortifications, as well as an agreement allowing Christian pilgrims and merchants access to Jerusalem. It also included a three-year truce.[87] Captivity and return Bad weather forced Richard's ship to put in at Corfu, in the lands of the Byzantine Emperor Isaac II Angelos, who objected to Richard's annexation of Cyprus, formerly Byzantine territory. Disguised as a Knight Templar, Richard sailed from Corfu with four attendants, but his ship was wrecked near Aquileia, forcing Richard and his party into a dangerous land route through central Europe. On his way to the territory of his brother-in-law Henry of Saxony, Richard was captured shortly before Christmas 1192 near Vienna by Leopold V, Duke of Austria, who accused Richard of arranging the murder of his cousin Conrad of Montferrat. Moreover Richard had personally offended Leopold by casting down his standard from the walls of Acre. Duke Leopold kept him prisoner at Dürnstein Castle under the care of Leopold's ministerialis Hadmar of Kuenring.[88] His mishap was soon known to England, but the regents were for some weeks uncertain of his whereabouts. While in prison, Richard wrote Ja nus hons pris or Ja nuls om pres ("No man who is imprisoned"), which is addressed to his half-sister Marie de Champagne. He wrote the song, in French and Occitan versions, to express his feelings of abandonment by his people and his sister. The detention of a crusader was contrary to public law,[89][90] and on these grounds Pope Celestine III excommunicated Duke Leopold. On 28 March 1193 Richard was brought to Speyer and handed over to Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, who was aggrieved both by the support which the Plantagenets had given to the family of Henry the Lion, and also by Richard's recognition of Tancred in Sicily,[89] and who imprisoned him in Trifels Castle. Henry VI, needing money to raise an army and assert his rights over southern Italy, continued to hold Richard for ransom. In response Pope Celestine III excommunicated Henry VI, as he had Duke Leopold, for the continued wrongful imprisonment of Richard. Richard famously refused to show deference to the emperor and declared to him, "I am born of a rank which recognises no superior but God".[91] Despite his complaints, the conditions of his captivity were not severe. The emperor demanded that 150,000 marks (65,000 pounds of silver) be delivered to him before he would release the king, the same amount raised by the Saladin tithe only a few years earlier,[92] and 2-3 times the annual income for the English Crown under Richard. Eleanor of Aquitaine worked to raise the ransom. Both clergy and laymen were taxed for a quarter of the value of their property, the gold and silver treasures of the churches were confiscated, and money was raised from the scutage and the carucage taxes. At the same time, John, Richard's brother, and King Philip of France offered 80,000 marks for the Emperor to hold Richard prisoner until Michaelmas 1194. The emperor turned down the offer. The money to rescue the King was transferred to Germany by the emperor's ambassadors, but "at the king's peril" (had it been lost along the way, Richard would have been held responsible), and finally, on 4 February 1194 Richard was released. Philip sent a message to John: "Look to yourself; the devil is loose".[93] Later years and death In Richard's absence, his brother John revolted with the aid of Philip; amongst Philip's conquests in the period of Richard's imprisonment was Normandy.[94] Richard forgave John when they met again and named him as his heir in place of Arthur. Richard began his reconquest of Normandy. The fall of Château de Gisors to the French in 1196 opened a gap in the Norman defences. The search began for a fresh site for a new castle to defend the duchy of Normandy and act as a base from which Richard could launch his campaign to take back the Vexin from French control.[95] A naturally defensible position was identified perched high above the River Seine, an important transport route, in the manor of Andeli. Under the terms of the Peace of Louviers (December 1195) between Richard and Philip II, neither king was allowed to fortify the site; despite this, Richard intended to build the vast Chateau Gaillard.[96] Richard tried to obtain the manor through negotiation. Walter de Coutances, Archbishop of Rouen, was reluctant to sell the manor as it was one of the diocese's most profitable, and other lands belonging to the diocese had recently been damaged by war.[96] When Philip besieged Aumale in Normandy, Richard grew tired of waiting and seized the manor,[96][97] although the act was opposed by the Church.[98] Walter de Coutances issued an interdict against the duchy of Normandy which prohibited church services from being performed in the region. Roger of Howden detailed "the unburied bodies of the dead lying in the streets and square of the cities of Normandy". Construction began with the interdict hanging over Normandy, but it was later repealed in April 1197 by Pope Celestine III, after Richard made gifts of land to Walter de Coutances and the diocese of Rouen, including two manors and the prosperous port of Dieppe.[99][100] During Richard's reign, royal expenditure on castles declined from the levels spent under Henry II, Richard's father. This has been attributed to a concentration of resources on Richard's war with the king of France.[101] However, the work at Château Gaillard was some of the most expensive of its time and cost an estimated £15,000 to £20,000 between 1196 and 1198.[102] This was more than double Richard's spending on castles in England, an estimated £7,000.[103] Unprecedented in its speed of construction, the castle was mostly complete in just two years, when most construction on such a scale would have taken the best part of a decade.[102] According to William of Newburgh, in May 1198 Richard and the labourers working on the castle were drenched in a "rain of blood". While some of his advisers thought the rain was an evil omen, Richard was undeterred:[104] the king was not moved by this to slacken one whit the pace of work, in which he took such keen pleasure that, unless I am mistaken, even if an angel had descended from heaven to urge its abandonment he would have been roundly cursed. -William of Newburgh[105] As no master-mason is mentioned in the otherwise detailed records of the castle's construction, military historian Allen Brown has suggested that Richard himself was the overall architect; this is supported by the interest Richard showed in the work through his frequent presence.[106] In his final years, the castle became Richard's favourite residence, and writs and charters were written at Château Gaillard bearing "apud Bellum Castrum de Rupe" (at the Fair Castle of the Rock).[107] Château Gaillard was ahead of its time, featuring innovations that would be adopted in castle architecture nearly a century later.[107] Richard later boasted that he could hold the castle "were the walls made of butter".[108] Allen Brown described Château Gaillard as "one of the finest castles in Europe"[107] and military historian Sir Charles Oman wrote that: Château Gaillard ... was considered the masterpiece of its time. The reputation of its builder, Coeur de Lion, as a great military engineer might stand firm on this single structure. He was no mere copyist of the models he had seen in the East, but introduced many original details of his own invention into the stronghold. -Oman 1924[109] Determined to resist Philip's designs on contested Angevin lands such as the Vexin and Berry, Richard poured all his military expertise and vast resources into war on the French King. He constructed an alliance against Philip, including Baldwin IX of Flanders, Renaud, Count of Boulogne, and his father-in-law King Sancho VI of Navarre, who raided Philip's lands from the south. Most importantly, he managed to secure the Welf inheritance in Saxony for his nephew, Henry the Lion's son Otto of Poitou, who was elected Otto IV of Germany in 1198. Partly as a result of these and other intrigues, Richard won several victories over Philip. At Freteval in 1194, just after Richard's return from captivity and money-raising in England to France, Philip fled, leaving his entire archive of financial audits and documents to be captured by Richard. At the battle of Gisors (sometimes called Courcelles) in 1198 Richard took "Dieu et mon Droit"-"God and my Right"-as his motto (still used by the British monarchy today), echoing his earlier boast to the Emperor Henry that his rank acknowledged no superior but God. In March 1199, Richard was in the Limousin suppressing a revolt by Viscount Aimar V of Limoges. Although it was Lent, he "devastated the Viscount's land with fire and sword".[110] He besieged the puny, virtually unarmed castle of Chalus-Chabrol. Some chroniclers claimed that this was because a local peasant had uncovered a treasure trove of Roman gold,[111] which Richard claimed from Aimar in his position as feudal overlord. In the early evening of 25 March 1199, Richard was walking around the castle perimeter without his chainmail, investigating the progress of sappers on the castle walls. Missiles were occasionally shot from the castle walls, but these were given little attention. One defender in particular amused the king greatly-a man standing on the walls, crossbow in one hand, the other clutching a frying pan which he had been using all day as a shield to beat off missiles. He deliberately aimed at the king, which the king applauded; however, another crossbowman then struck the king in the left shoulder near the neck. He tried to pull this out in the privacy of his tent but failed; a surgeon, called a "butcher" by Hoveden, removed it, "carelessly mangling" the King's arm in the process. The wound swiftly became gangrenous. Accordingly, Richard asked to have the crossbowman brought before him; called alternatively Pierre (or Peter) Basile, John Sabroz, Dudo,[112][113] and Bertrand de Gurdon (from the town of Gourdon) by chroniclers, the man turned out (according to some sources, but not all) to be a boy. This boy claimed that Richard had killed the boy's father and two brothers, and that he had killed Richard in revenge. The boy expected to be executed; Richard, as a last act of mercy, forgave the boy of his crime, saying, "Live on, and by my bounty behold the light of day," before ordering the boy to be freed and sent away with 100 shillings.[114] Richard then set his affairs in order, bequeathing all his territory to his brother John and his jewels to his nephew Otto. Richard died on 6 April 1199 in the arms of his mother; it was later said that "As the day was closing, he ended his earthly day." Because of the nature of Richard's death, he was later referred to as "the Lion (that) by the Ant was slain". According to one chronicler, Richard's last act of chivalry proved fruitless; in an orgy of medieval brutality, the infamous mercenary captain Mercadier had the crossbowman flayed alive and hanged as soon as Richard died.[115] Richard's heart was buried at Rouen in Normandy, the entrails in Châlus (where he died) and the rest of his body was buried at the feet of his father at Fontevraud Abbey in Anjou.[116] In 2012, scientists analysed the remains of Richard's heart and found that it had been embalmed with various substances, including frankincense, a symbolically important substance because it had been present both at the birth and embalming of the Christ.[117] A 13th century Bishop of Rochester wrote that Richard spent 33 years in purgatory as expiation for his sins, eventually ascending to Heaven in March 1232.[118] Legacy Richard's reputation over the years has "fluctuated wildly", according to historian John Gillingham.[119] Richard's contemporaneous image was that of a king who was also a knight, and that was apparently the first such instance of this combination.[120] He was known as a valiant and competent military leader and individual fighter: courageous and generous. That reputation has come down through the ages and defines the popular image of Richard.[120] He left an indelible imprint on the imagination extending to the present, in large part because of his military exploits. This is reflected in Steven Runciman's final verdict of Richard I: "he was a bad son, a bad husband, and a bad king, but a gallant and splendid soldier." ("History of the Crusades" Vol. III) Meanwhile, Muslim writers[121] during the Crusades period and after wrote of him: "Never have we had to face a bolder or more subtle opponent."[121] Richard, however, also received negative portrayals. During his life, he was criticised by chroniclers for having taxed the clergy both for the Crusade and for his ransom, whereas the church and the clergy were usually exempt from taxes.[122] Victorian England was divided on Richard: many of them admired him as a crusader and man of God, erecting an heroic statue to him outside the Houses of Parliament. The late-Victorian scholar William Stubbs on the other hand, thought him "a bad son, a bad husband, a selfish ruler, and a vicious man". Though born in Oxford, he spoke no English. During his ten years' reign, he was in England for no more than six months, and was totally absent for the last five years.[119] Stubbs argued that: He was a bad king: his great exploits, his military skill, his splendour and extravagance, his poetical tastes, his adventurous spirit, do not serve to cloak his entire want of sympathy, or even consideration, for his people. He was no Englishman, but it does not follow that he gave to Normandy, Anjou, or Aquitaine the love or care that he denied to his kingdom. His ambition was that of a mere warrior: he would fight for anything whatever, but he would sell everything that was worth fighting for. The glory that he sought was that of victory rather than conquest.[123] Richard produced no legitimate heirs and acknowledged only one illegitimate son, Philip of Cognac. As a result, he was succeeded by his brother John as King of England. However, his French territories initially rejected John as a successor, preferring his nephew Arthur of Brittany, the son of their late brother Geoffrey, whose claim was by modern standards better than John's. Significantly, the lack of any direct heirs from Richard was the first step in the dissolution of the Angevin Empire. While Kings of England continued to press claims to properties on the continent, they would never again command the territories Richard I inherited. Medieval folklore Around the middle of the 13th century, various legends developed that, after Richard's capture, his minstrel Blondel travelled Europe from castle to castle, loudly singing a song known only to the two of them (they had composed it together).[124] Eventually, he came to the place where Richard was being held, and Richard heard the song and answered with the appropriate refrain, thus revealing where the king was incarcerated. The story was the basis of André Ernest Modeste Grétry's opera Richard Coeur-de-Lion and seems to be the inspiration for the opening to Richard Thorpe's film version of Ivanhoe. It seems unconnected to the real Jean 'Blondel' de Nesle, an aristocratic trouvère. It also does not correspond to the historical reality, since the king's jailers did not hide the fact; on the contrary, they publicised it.[125] At some time around the 16th century, tales of Robin Hood started to mention him as a contemporary and supporter of King Richard the Lionheart, Robin being driven to outlawry, during the misrule of Richard's evil brother John, while Richard was away at the Third Crusade. Modern fiction Richard appears as a major or minor character in many works of fiction, both written and audio-visual. As noted above, Richard appears in connection with Robin Hood in Sir Walter Scott's novel Ivanhoe. He is one of the main characters in Scott's The Talisman, set during the Third Crusade. He appears in many other fictional accounts of the Third Crusade and its sequel, for example Graham Shelby's The Kings of Vain Intent and The Devil is Loose. Richard is a major character in Norah Lofts' novel The Lute Player, in Cecelia Holland's The King's Witch, Gore Vidal's A Search For the King and in Sharon Kay Penman's The Devil's Brood and Lionheart. He also appears in three of Angus Donald's Outlaw Chronicles series of novels based on the legend of Robin Hood. The opera Riccardo Primo by George Frideric Handel is based on Richard's invasion of Cyprus. Richard is a major character in James Goldman's The Lion in Winter, which references the alleged homosexual affair between Richard and Philip II of France. Media Richard was played by Henry Wilcoxon in Cecil B. DeMille's 1935 epic, The Crusades, by Ian Hunter in The Adventures of Robin Hood (1938), by George Sanders in King Richard and the Crusaders (1954), by Richard Harris in Richard Lester's Robin and Marian, by Sean Connery in Kevin Reynolds's Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991), and by Patrick Stewart in Robin Hood: Men in Tights (1993), Mel Brooks' spoof of both earlier films. Richard was played by Sir Anthony Hopkins in Anthony Harvey's The Lion in Winter and Andrew Howard played him in the 2003 remake directed by Andrey Konchalovskiy, which starred Patrick Stewart. Richard is portrayed in a brief scene at the end of the film Kingdom of Heaven directed by Ridley Scott, Richard I is portrayed by actor Iain Glen, and is seen hoping to recruit the recently returned to France Balian of Ibelin to join him in what would become the Third Crusade. In the 2010 epic film Robin Hood also directed by Scott, actor Danny Huston portrayed Richard, the film depicts the king's death as during the siege of Chalus Castle. In the 2013 film Richard The Lionheart directed by Stefano Milla, actor Chandler Maness portrayed Richard as a young and petulant prince. Other media Richard is a character in video games such as Stainless Steel Studios' Empire Earth (2001),Firefly Studios' Stronghold: Crusader (2002) Empires: Dawn of the Modern World (2003), Ubisoft's Assassin's Creed (2007) and Paradox Interactive's Crusader Kings II(2012). References Notes ^ Jump up to: a b Turner & Heiser 2000, p. 71 Jump up ^ Maalouf 1984, p. 318 cites Bahaeddine (Baha al-Din), p. 239 Jump up ^ Addison 1842, pp. 141-149. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 20. Jump up ^ Harvey 1948, pp. 62-64 Jump up ^ Turner & Heiser[page needed] Jump up ^ Harvey 1948, p. 58. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, p. 1. ^ Jump up to: a b Gillingham 2002, p. 24. ^ Jump up to: a b c Flori 1999, p. ix. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, p. 2. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, p. 28. Jump up ^ Gillingham, John (1979), p 32. Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 28. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, p. 10. Jump up ^ Leese 1996, p. 57. Jump up ^ Prestwich, J.O., p, 76. Jump up ^ Stafford, P. et al. pp. 168-169. Jump up ^ Brewer 2000, p. 41. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, pp. 23-25. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, pp. 26-27. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, pp. 25, 28. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, pp. 27-28. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, p. 29. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, pp. 29-30. Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 40. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, pp. 31-32. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, p. 32. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, pp. 32-33. Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 41. Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, pp. 49-50. ^ Jump up to: a b Gillingham 2002, p. 48. ^ Jump up to: a b Flori 1999, p. 33. ^ Jump up to: a b Flori 1999, pp. 34-35. Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 49. ^ Jump up to: a b Flori 1999, pp. 33-34. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Flori 1999, p. 35. Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, pp. 50-51. ^ Jump up to: a b Gillingham 2002, p. 50. Jump up ^ Flori 1999, p. 36. ^ Jump up to: a b Gillingham 2002, p. 52. ^ Jump up to: a b Flori, p. 41. Jump up ^ Flori, pp. 41-42. Jump up ^ Roger of Hoveden, Gesta Henrici II Benedicti Abbatis, vol. 1, p. 292 Jump up ^ Roger of Hoveden & Riley 1853, p. 64 Jump up ^ Martin 18 March 2008 Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 107. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 94-95. ^ Jump up to: a b c d Flori 1999 (French), p. 95. Jump up ^ Graetz (1902)[page needed] Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 465-466. As cited by Flori, the chronicler Giraud le Cambrien reports that Richard was fond of telling a tale according to which he was a descendant of a countess of Anjou who was in fact the fairy Melusine, concluding that his whole family "came from the devil and would return to the devil". Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 319-320. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 100. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 97-101 ^ Jump up to: a b Flori 1999 (French), p. 101 Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 99 Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 118. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 111 Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 114 ^ Jump up to: a b Flori 1999 (French), p. 116 Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 117 Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 124-126 Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 127-128 Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 131. ^ Jump up to: a b c Flori 1999 (French), p. 132. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 133-134. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 134. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 134-136. ^ Jump up to: a b Flori 1999 (French), p. 137. ^ Jump up to: a b c Flori 1999 (French), p. 138. Jump up ^ Abbott, Jacob, History of King Richard the First of England, Harper & Brothers 1877 Jump up ^ Richard I. by Jacob Abbot, New York and London Harper & Brothers 1902 Jump up ^ Harvey, pp.33-4. There is a mention of this question in Richard, A., Histoire des comtes de Poitout, 778-1204, vol. I-II, Paris, 1903, t. II, p. 130, cited Flori 1999 (French), p. 448, however. Jump up ^ Summarised in McLynn, pp.92-3. Jump up ^ Roger of Hoveden, The Annals, trans. Henry T. Riley, 2. Vols. (London: H.G. Bohn, 1853; repr. New York: AMS Press, 1968) Jump up ^ McLynn, p.93; see also Gillingham 1994, pp. 119-139. Jump up ^ Burgwinkle, pp.73-4. ^ Jump up to: a b As cited in Flori 1999 (French), p. 448 see for example Brundage, Richard Lion Heart, New York, 1974, pp. 38, 88, 202, 212, 257; Runciman, S., A History of the Crusade, Cambridge, 1951-194, t. III, pp. 41ff.; and Boswell, J., Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality, Chicago, 1980, p. 231ff. ^ Jump up to: a b Gillingham 1994, pp. 119-139. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 448. According to Flori, this change is due to greater social acceptance of homosexuality. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 456-462. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 463. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 464. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 454-456. Contemporaneous accounts refer to various signs of friendship between the two when Richard was at Philip's court in 1187 during his rebellion against his father Henry II, including sleeping in the same bed. But, according to Flori and Gillingham, such signs of friendship were part of the customs of the time and cannot be interpreted as indicating homosexuality of either man. Jump up ^ Gillingham (1979), pp. 198-200. Jump up ^ Gillingham (1979), pp. 209-212 Jump up ^ Richard I. by Jacob Abbott, New York and London Harper & Brothers 1902 Jump up ^ Arnold, p. 128 ^ Jump up to: a b Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Richard I". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 188-189. Jump up ^ Longford 1989, p. 85. Jump up ^ Madden 2005, p. 96[verification needed] Jump up ^ Purser 2004, p. 161. Jump up ^ Gillingham 2004. Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, pp. 303-305. ^ Jump up to: a b c Gillingham 2002, p. 301. Jump up ^ Turner 1997, p. 10. Jump up ^ Packard 1922, p. 20. Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, pp. 302-304 Jump up ^ Allen Brown 2004, p. 112. Jump up ^ Allen Brown 1955, pp. 355-356. ^ Jump up to: a b McNeill 1992, p. 42. Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 304. Jump up ^ Gillingham 2002, p. 303. Jump up ^ Liddiard 2005, pp. 112-113. Jump up ^ Allen Brown 2004, p. 113. ^ Jump up to: a b c Allen Brown 1976, p. 62. Jump up ^ Oman 1991, p. 32. Jump up ^ Oman 1991, p. 33. Jump up ^ Ralph of Coggeshall, Chronicon Anglicanum, p. 94 Jump up ^ "King Richard I of England Versus King Philip II Augustus". Historynet.com. 23 August 2006. Retrieved 4 February 2012. Jump up ^ Gillingham 1989, p. 16. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 233-254. Jump up ^ Although there are numerous variations of the story's details, it is not disputed that Richard did pardon the person who shot the bolt, see Flori 1999 (French), p. 234. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 238. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 235. Jump up ^ Charlier, Philippe (28 Fenruary 2013). "The embalmed heart of Richard the Lionheart (1199 A.D.): a biological and anthropological analysis". Joël Poupon, Gaël-François Jeannel, Dominique Favier, Speranta-Maria Popescu, Raphaël Weil, Christophe Moulherat, Isabelle Huynh-Charlier, Caroline Dorion-Peyronnet, Ana-Maria Lazar, Christian Hervé & Geoffroy Lorin de la Grandmaison. Nature. Retrieved 2 March 2013. Jump up ^ Gillingham 1979, p. 8. ^ Jump up to: a b John Gillingham, Kings and Queens of Britain: Richard I; Cannon (2001),[page needed] ^ Jump up to: a b Flori 1999 (French), pp. 484-485. ^ Jump up to: a b Andrew Holt. "Jonathan Phillips". Crusades-encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 30 March 2012.[dead link] Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 322. Jump up ^ Stubbs, William, "'The Constitutional History of England, vol. 1, pp.550-551 Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), pp. 191-192. Jump up ^ Flori 1999 (French), p. 192. Bibliography Addison, Charles (1842), The History of the Knights Templars, the Temple Church, and the Temple, London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans Arnold, B (1999) [1985], German Knighthood 1050-1300, Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0-19-821960-1 Allen Brown, R (1976) [1954], Allen Brown's English Castles, Woodbridge: The Boydell Press, ISBN 1-84383-069-8 Brewer, Clifford (2000), The Death of Kings, London: Abson Books, ISBN 978-0-902920-99-6 Cannon, John & Hargreaves, Anne (eds). Kings and Queens of Britain, Oxford University Press 2001, 2004, ISBN 0-19-860956-6. Richard I, by John Gillingham Flori, Jean (1999), Richard the Lionheart: Knight and King, Translated by Jean Birrell, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, ISBN 978-0-7486-2047-0 Flori, Jean (1999 (French)), Richard Coeur de Lion: le roi-chevalier, Paris: Biographie Payot, ISBN 978-2-228-89272-8 Gillingham, John (1979), Richard the Lionheart, New York: Times Books, ISBN 0-8129-0802-3 Gillingham, John (1989), Richard the Lionheart, Butler and Tanner Ltd Gillingham, John (1994), Richard Coeur De Lion: Kingship, Chivalry And War In The Twelfth Century, London Gillingham, John (2002) [1999], Richard I, London: Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-09404-3 Gillingham, John (2004), "Richard I (1157-1199), king of England", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, retrieved 22 December 2009 Graetz, H. Bella Löwy; Bloch, Philipp (1902), History of the Jews, Jewish Publication Society of America Harvey, John (1948), The Plantagenets, Fontana/Collins, ISBN 0-00-632949-7 Leese, Thelma Anna (1996), Royal: Issue of the Kings and Queens of Medieval England, 1066-1399, Heritage Books Inc, ISBN 978-0-7884-0525-9 Liddiard, Robert (2005), Castles in Context: Power, Symbolism and Landscape, 1066 to 1500, Macclesfield: Windgather Press Ltd, ISBN 0-9545575-2-2 Longford, Elizabeth (1989), The Oxford Book of Royal Anecdotes, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-214153-8 Maalouf, Amin (1984), "L'impossible rencontre", in J'ai lu, Les Croisades vues par les Arabes (in French) (XI, part V), p. 318, ISBN 2-290-11916-4 Madden, Thomas F. (2005), Crusades: The Illustrated History (annotated, illustrated ed.), University of Michigan Press, ISBN 0-472-03127-9 Martin, Nicole (18 March 2008). "Richard I slept with French king 'but not gay'". The Daily Telegraph. p. 11. See also "Bed-heads of state". The Daily Telegraph. 18 March 2008. p. 25. McNeill, Tom (1992), English Heritage Book of Castles, London: English Heritage and B. T. Batsford, ISBN 0-7134-7025-9 Oman, Charles (1991) [1924], A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages, Volume Two: 1278-1485 AD, Greenhill Books Packard, Sydney (1922), "King John and the Norman Church", The Harvard Theological Review (Cambridge University Press) 15 (1): 15-40 Prestwich, J.O. (2004) The Place of War in English History, 1066-1214. Boydell Press. Purser, Toby (2004), Medieval England 1042-1228 (illustrated ed.), Heinemann, ISBN 0-435-32760-7 Ralph of Coggeshall, Chronicon Anglicanum Roger of Hoveden; Riley, Henry T. (translator) (1853), The annals of Roger de Hoveden: comprising The history of England and of other countries of Europe from A.D. 732 to A.D. 1201 2, London: H.G. Bohn Roger of Hoveden, Gesta Regis Henrici II & Gesta Regis Ricardi Benedicti Abbatis, ed. William Stubbs, 2 vols, (London, 1867), available at Gallica. Roger of Hoveden, Chronica Magistri Rogeri de Houedene, ed. William Stubbs, 4 vols, (London, 1868-71), available at Gallica. Stafford, P., Nelson, J.L and Martindale, J. (2002) Law, Laity and Solidarities. Manchester University Press. Turner, Ralph (1997), "Richard Lionheart and English Episcopal Elections", Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies (The North American Conference on British Studies) 29 (1): 1-13 Turner, Ralph V.; Heiser, Richard R (2000), The Reign of Richard Lionheart, Ruler of the Angevin empire, 1189-1199, Harlow: Longman, ISBN 0-582-25659-3 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Another version: Richard I (September 8, 1157 - April 6, 1199) was King of England from 1189 to 1199. He was often referred to as Richard the Lionheart, Coeur de Lion. Early life: The third of King Henry II's legitimate sons, Richard was never expected to ascend to the throne. He was, however, the favourite son of his mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine. Richard was a younger maternal half-brother of Marie de Champagne and Alix of France. He was a younger brother of William, Count of Poitiers, Henry the Young King and Matilda of England. He was also an older brother of Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany, Leonora of Aquitaine , Joan Plantagenet and John of England. Although born at Beaumont Palace, Oxford, England, he soon came to know France as his home. When his parents effectively separated, he remained in Eleanor's care, and was invested with her duchy of Aquitaine in 1168, and of Poitiers in 1172. This was his consolation prize for the fact that his eldest surviving brother, Henry the Young King, was simultaneously crowned as his father's successor. Richard and his other brother, Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany, thus learned how to defend their property while still teenagers. As well as being an educated man, able to compose poetry in French and Provençal, Richard was also a magnificent physical specimen; blond, blue-eyed, his height is estimated at six feet four inches (1.93 m) tall. He gloried in military activity. From an early age he appeared to have significant political and military abilities, became noted for his chivalry and courage, and soon was able to control the unruly nobles of his territory. As with all the true-born sons of Henry II, Richard had limited respect for his father and lacked foresight and a sense of responsibility. Although the claim remains controversial, some historians have alleged that Richard was homosexual. Throughout his life preachers were to thunder at him to beware the fate of Sodom, and his marriage does not seem to have ever been consummated. However, he is known to have had at least one illegitimate child. In 1170, his elder brother Henry the Young King was crowned king of England as Henry III. Historians know him as Henry "the Young King" so as not to confuse him with the later king of this name who was his nephew. In 1173, Richard joined his brothers, Henry and Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany, in a revolt against their father. They were planning to dethrone their father and leave the Young King as the only king of England. Henry II invaded Aquitaine twice. At the age of seventeen, Richard was the last of the brothers to hold out against Henry; though, in the end, he refused to fight him face to face and humbly begged his pardon. In 1174, after the end of the failed revolt, Richard gave a new oath of subservience to his father. Richard had several major reasons for discontent with his father. First was Henry's refusal to allow Richard any real power or funds despite pleas by Richard for more of both. Though placated by glittering titles such as Count of Poitou, Richard wanted more and Henry seemed unwilling to entrust any of his sons with resources that could be used against him, with very good reason. Second, and more personal, was that Henry had appropriated Princess Alys (not the same Alix as Richard's half-sister), the daughter of the French king and Richard's betrothed, as his mistress. This made a marriage between Richard and Alys technically impossible - at least in the eyes of the church, but Henry, not wishing to cause a diplomatic incident, prevaricated and did not confess to his misdeed. As for Richard, he was discouraged from renouncing Alys because she was Philip's sister. After his failure to overthrow his father, Richard concentrated on putting down internal revolts by the dissatisfied nobles of Aquitaine, especially the territory of Gascony. The increasing cruelty of his reign led to a major revolt of Gascony in 1183. Richard had a terrible reputation, including reports of various rapes and murders. The rebels hoped to dethrone Richard and asked his brothers Henry and Geoffrey to help them succeed. Their father feared that the war between his three sons could lead to the destruction of his kingdom. He led the part of his army that served in his French territories in support of Richard. The Young King's death on June 11, 1183, ended the revolt, and Richard remained on his throne. Young Henry's death left Richard as the eldest surviving son and the natural heir when the old King eventually died. However, there was some uncertainty over King Henry's intentions. When Geoffrey also died, Richard was the only realistic possibility, his youngest brother, John, being too weak and inexperienced to be considered as an alternative. From the Young King's death Richard was considered -- though not officially proclaimed -- heir to the joint thrones of England, Normandy and Anjou. In 1188 Henry II planned to concede Aquitaine to his youngest son John Lackland, later King John of England. In opposition to his father's plans, Richard allied himself with King Philip II of France, the son of Eleanor's ex-husband Louis VII by his third wife, Adele of Champagne. In exchange for Philip's help against his father, Richard promised to concede his rights to both Normandy and Anjou to Philip. Richard gave an oath of subservience to Philip in November of the same year. In 1189 Richard attempted to take the throne of England for himself by joining Philip's expedition against his father. They were victorious. Henry, with John's consent, agreed to name Richard his heir. On July 6, 1189 Henry II died in Chinon, and Richard I succeeded him as King of England, Duke of Normandy, and Count of Anjou. He was officially crowned duke on July 20 and king in Westminster on September 3, 1189. Reign: Richard had forbidden any Jews to make an appearance at his coronation, but some Jewish leaders showed up anyway to present gifts for the new king. According to Ralph of Diceto, Richard's courtiers stripped and flogged the Jews, then flung them out of court. The people of London joined in to persecute the Jews, and a massacre began. Many Jews were beaten to death, robbed, and burnt alive. At least one was forcibly baptised. Some sought sanctuary in the Tower of London, and others managed to escape half-dead. Richard has been criticised for doing little for England, siphoning the kingdom's resources by appointing Jewish moneylenders to support his journeys away on Crusade in the Holy Land. Indeed, he spent only six months of his ten year reign in England, claiming it was "cold and always raining." During the period when he was raising funds for his Crusade, Richard was heard to declare, "If I could have found a buyer I would have sold London itself." Leaving the country in the hands of various officials he designated (including his mother, at times), Richard spent only a small fraction of his reign in England, being far more concerned with his possessions in what is now France and his battles in Palestine. He had grown up on the Continent, and had never seen any need to learn the English language. Soon after his accession to the throne, he decided to join the Third Crusade, inspired by the loss of Jerusalem to the Muslims under the command of Saladin. Afraid that, during his absence, the French might usurp his territories, Richard tried to persuade Philip to join the Crusade as well. Philip agreed and both gave their crusader oaths on the same date. Richard did not concern himself with the future of England. He wanted to engage in an adventure that would cause the troubadours to immortalise his name, as well as guaranteeing him a place in heaven. The evidence suggests that he had deep spiritual needs, and he swore an oath to renounce his past wickedness in order to show himself worthy to take the cross. He started to raise a new English crusader army, though most of his warriors were Normans, and supplied it with weapons. He spent most of his father's treasury (filled with money raised by the Saladin tithe), raised taxes, and even agreed to free King William I of Scotland from his oath of subservience to Richard in exchange for 10,000 marks. To raise even more money he sold official positions, rights, and lands to those interested in them. He finally succeeded in raising a huge army and navy. After repositioning the part of his army he left behind so that it would guard his French possessions, Richard finally started his expedition to the Holy Land in 1190. Richard appointed as regents Hugh, Bishop of Durham, and William de Mandeville, 3rd Earl of Essex, who soon died and was replaced by Richard's chancellor William Longchamp. Richard's brother John was not satisfied by this decision and started scheming against William. The struggle for Sicily: In September 1190 both Richard and Philip arrived in Sicily. In 1189 King William II of Sicily had died. His heir was his aunt Constance, later Queen Constance of Sicily, who was married to Emperor Henry VI. But immediately after William's death, William's cousin, Tancred, rebelled, seized control of the island and was crowned early in 1190 as King Tancred I of Sicily. He was favored by the people and Pope Clement III but had problems with the island's nobles. Richard's arrival caused even more problems. Tancred had imprisoned William's widow, Queen Joan, who was Richard's sister, and did not give her the money she had inherited according to William's will. Richard demanded that his sister be released and given her inheritance. Meanwhile the presence of two foreign armies caused unrest among the people. In October, the people of Messina revolted, demanding that the foreigners leave the island. Richard attacked Messina and captured it on October 4, 1190. After looting and burning the city Richard established his base in it. He remained there until March 1191 when Tancred finally agreed to sign a treaty. The treaty was signed during the same month by Richard, Philip and Tancred. According to the treaty's main terms: Joan was to be released, receiving her inheritance along with the dowry her father had given to the deceased William. Richard and Philip recognized Tancred as legal King of Sicily and vowed to keep the peace between all three of their kingdoms. Richard officially proclaimed his nephew, the son of Geoffrey, Arthur of Brittany, as his heir, and Tancred promised to later marry one of his daughters to Arthur when he came of age (Arthur was only four years old at the time). After signing the treaty Richard and Philip left Sicily. The treaty undermined England's relationships with the Holy Roman Empire and caused the revolt of Richard's brother John, who hoped to be proclaimed heir instead of their nephew. Although his revolt failed, John continued to scheme against his brother after this point. Richard on the Third Crusade: In April 1191, Richard stopped on the Byzantine island of Rhodes to avoid the stormy weather. It seems that Richard had previously met his fiancée Berengaria only once, years before their marriage. He had assigned his mother to represent him and convince her father, Sancho VI of Navarre, and her other relatives to agree to the marriage, and to bring the bride to the wedding. Richard came to their rescue when they were shipwrecked on the coast of Cyprus. He left Rhodes in May but a new storm drove Richard's fleet to the island. On May 6, 1191, Richard's fleet arrived in the port of Lemesos (now Limassol). Richard captured the city. When the island's despot Isaac Dukas Comnenus arrived to stop the Crusaders he discovered he was too late, and retired to Kolossi. Richard called Isaac to negotiations but Isaac broke his oath of hospitality and started demanding Richard's departure. Richard ordered his cavalry to follow him in a battle against Isaac's army in Tremetusia. The few Roman Catholics of the island joined Richard's army and so did the island's nobles who were dissatisfied with Isaac's seven years of tyrannical rule. Though Isaac and his men fought bravely, Richard's army was bigger and better equipped, assuring his victory. Isaac continued to resist from the castles of Pentadactylos but after the siege of his castle of Kantara he finally surrendered. Richard became the new ruler of Cyprus. Richard looted the island and massacred those trying to resist him. Meanwhile, Richard was finally able to marry Berengaria, first-born daughter of King Sancho VI of Navarre, whose brother Sancho (the future Sancho VII) was allegedly one of Richard's early lovers. The marriage was held in Limassol on May 12, 1191 at the Chapel of St. George. It was attended by his sister Joan, whom Richard had brought from Sicily. There were no children from the marriage; opinions vary as to whether it was ever a love match. The unfortunate Berengaria had almost as much difficulty in making the journey home as her husband did, and did not see England until after his death. From Cyprus onwards, Richard had among his friends and allies a Franco-Syrian noble, Humphrey IV of Toron, the former husband of Richard's father's first cousin Isabella, Queen of Jerusalem. The young Humphrey was the dispossessed Lord of Toron, Oultrejordain, etc. He knew the Muslim culture and spoke Arabic, whereby Richard used him as his translator and negotiator. As contemporary sources alleged, Humphrey was not suited to married life and was known as soft and effeminate. (He did not want to oppose the other lords, and therefore had consented to the forced divorce from Richard's cousin.) As contemporary sources say, Richard had a deep affection for Humphrey. Humphrey died sometime in the mid-1190s. Whether Richard's marriage with Berengaria was ever even consummated is a matter for conjecture. (Though it should be noted that when Richard married Berengaria he was still officially betrothed to Alys and that Richard pushed for the match, in order to obtain Navarre as a fief like Aquitaine for his father.) Richard had a terrible womanising reputation, but he took his new wife with him briefly on this episode of the crusade. However, they returned separately. Although, after his release from German captivity, Richard showed some degree of regret for his earlier conduct, he was not joined by his wife. The fact that the marriage was childless is inconclusive, but it is certainly true that Richard had to be ordered by a priest to reunite with and to show fidelity to Berengaria in the future, with the language he used being the main source cited for a 20th century theory that Richard had been engaged in homosexual activities. Nevertheless, when he died in 1199, she was greatly distressed, apparently having loved her husband very much. Richard and most of his army left Cyprus for the Holy Land early in June. In his absence Cyprus would be governed by Richard Camville. King Richard arrived at Acre in June 1191, in time to relieve the siege of the city by Saladin. Deserted by Philip and having fallen out with Duke Leopold V of Austria, he suddenly found himself without allies. Richard's tactics ensured success at the siege of Acre and on the subsequent march south, Saladin's men being unable to harass the Crusader army into an impulsive action which might not have gone their way. However, the desertion of the French king had been a major blow, from which they could not hope to recover. Realising that he had no hope of holding Jerusalem even if he took it, Richard sadly ordered a retreat. Despite being only a few miles from the city, he refused, thereafter, to set eyes on it, since God had ordained that he should not be the one to conquer it. He had finally realised that his return home could be postponed no longer, since both Philip and John were taking advantage of his absence to make themselves more powerful. Having planned to leave Conrad of Montferrat as "King" of Jerusalem and Cyprus in the hands of his own protégé, Guy of Lusignan, Richard was dealt another blow when Conrad was assassinated before he could be crowned. His replacement was Richard's own nephew, Henry I of Champagne. Captivity and return: Bad luck dogged Richard on his return home. Bad weather forced his ship to put in at Corfu, the territory of the Byzantine Emperor Isaac Angelus, who was still angry at Richard for his annexation of Cyprus. Disguised as a Knight Templar, Richard sailed from Corfu with four attendants in a pirate ship, which wrecked near Aquileia, forcing Richard and his party into a dangerous land route through central Europe. On his way to the territory of Henry of Saxony, his brother-in-law, Richard was captured shortly before Christmas 1192 only a few miles from the Moravian border, near Vienna, by Leopold V of Austria, who accused Richard of ordering the death of Conrad. Richard and his retainers had been traveling disguised as pilgrims, complete with flowing beards and tattered clothes. Richard himself was dressed like a kitchen hand, but was identified because he was wearing a magnificent and costly ring no menial worker could afford. (Another tale claimed he was identified by his insistence on eating roast chicken, a great delicacy reserved for nobility.) The Duke handed him over as a prisoner to Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor after being held captive at Dürnstein. Although the circumstances of his captivity were not severe, he was frustrated by his inability to travel freely. Richard once proudly declared, "I am born of a rank which recognizes no superior but God" to the emperor. His mother, Eleanor of Aquitaine, worked tirelessly to raise the exorbitant ransom of 150,000 marks demanded by the German emperor, which was twice the annual income for the English Crown. Both clergy and laymen were taxed for a quarter of the value of their property, the gold and silver treasures of the churches were confiscated, and money was raised from the scutage and the carucage taxes. The emperor demanded that 100,000 marks be delivered to him before he would release the king, the same amount that had been raised by the Saladin tithe only a few years earlier. At the same time, John, Richard's brother, and King Philip offered 80,000 marks for the Emperor to hold Richard prisoner until Michaelmas 1194. The emperor turned down the offer. The money to rescue the King was transferred to Germany by the emperor's ambassadors, but "at the king's peril" (had it been lost along the way, Richard would have been held responsible), and finally, on February 4, 1194 Richard was released. King Philip of France sent a message to John: "Look to yourself; the devil is loose." Later Years & Death: During his absence, John had come close to seizing the throne; Richard forgave him, and even named him as his heir in place of Arthur, who was growing into an unpleasant youth. Instead of turning against John, Richard came into conflict with his former ally and friend, King Philip. When Philip attacked Richard's fortress, Chateau-Gaillard, he boasted that "if its walls were iron, yet would I take it", to which Richard replied, "If these walls were butter, yet would I hold them!" After his many famous battles, it was a minor skirmish with the rebellious castle of Châlus-Charbrol in Limousin, France, on 26 March 1199 that would take Richard's life. Richard had laid siege to the castle in pursuit of a claim to treasure-trove. Pierre Basile was one of only two knights defending Châlus. Richard, who had removed some of his chainmail, was wounded in the shoulder by a crossbow bolt launched from a tower by Basile. Gangrene set in and Richard asked to see his killer. He ordered that Basile be set free and awarded a sum of money. However as soon as Richard died, with his 77-year-old mother Eleanor at his side, on 6 April 1199, Mercadier had Basile flayed alive and then hanged. Richard's existence had been a series of contradictions. Although he had neglected his wife, Berengaria, and had to be commanded by priests to be faithful to her, she was distraught at the news of his death. No heir was born of their marriage. Richard's bowels were buried at the foot of the tower from which the shot was loosed, his heart was buried at Rouen, while the rest of his remains were buried next to his father at Fontevraud Abbey near Chinon and Saumur, France. Legacy: As Richard produced no heirs, he was succeeded by his brother John as king of England. However, his French territories initially rejected John as a successor, preferring his nephew Arthur of Brittany, the son of their late brother Geoffrey, whose claim was technically better than John's. Significantly, the lack of any direct heirs from Richard was the first step in the disolution of the Angevin Empire. While England continued to press claims to properties on the continent, it would never again command the territories Richard I inherited. In the long term Richard's legacy has to be viewed through the lens of his personality and personal accomplishments. There is no doubt that Richard had many admirable qualities, as well as many bad ones. The most succinct summation of his character is from Winston Churchill: "Although a man of blood and violence, Richard was too impetuous to be either treacherous or habitually cruel. He was as ready to forgive as he was hasty to offend; he was open-handed and munificent to profusion; in war circumspect in design and skillful in execution; in politics a child, lacking in subtlety and experience. His political alliances were formed upon his likes and dislikes; his political schemes had neither unity nor clearness of purpose. The advantages gained for him by military genius were flung away through diplomatic ineptitude." Richard was a pure military man and while politically astute in some ways, he was incredibly foolish in others. He combined moments of great largesse and humility with great arrogance and ruthlessness. He was revered by his most worthy rival, Saladin, and respected by the Emperor Henry, but hated by many who had been his friends, especially King Philip. He was often careless of his own safety: the wound which killed him need not have been inflicted at all if he had been properly armoured. Almost the same thing had happened, ten years earlier when, while feuding with his father, he had encountered William Marshal while unarmed and had to beg for his life. These contradictions of his character fascinated his contemporaries, many of whom held him up as an exemplar of chivalry. In the long run Richard's legacy comprised several parts. First, he captured Cyprus, which proved immensely valuable in keeping the Frankish kingdoms in the Holy Land viable for another century. Secondly, his absence from the English political landscape meant that the highly efficient government created by his father was allowed to entrench itself, though King John would later abuse it to the breaking point. As Sir Winston Churchill pointed out, this was the embryo beginning of the English Civil Service and "proved that the King, to whom all allegiance had been rendered, was no longer the sole guarantee for law and order." The last part of Richard's legacy was romantic and literary. No matter the facts of his reign, he left an indelible imprint on the imagination extending to the present, in large part because of his military exploits. This is reflected in Steven Runciman's final verdict of Richard I: "he was a bad son, a bad husband and a bad king, but a gallant and splendid soldier." Folklore: Over the years the figures of Robin Hood and Richard I have become closely linked. However, in the earliest Robin Hood ballads the only king mentioned is "Edward our comely king", presumably Edward I, II, or III. It was not until much later that a connection came to be made between the two men. The typical usage of the link is that the major political goal of Robin's war is to restore Richard to the throne after Prince John usurped it. Another fictional aspect to Richard's life is the legend of his minstrel, Blondel, who, after Richard's capture, traveled Europe, going from castle to castle and loudly singing a song known only to the two of them. Eventually, the story goes, he came to the place where Richard was being held, and heard the song answered with the appropriate refrain, thus revealing where the king was incarcerated. Due to his bravery, savagery, and fame in the Arabic world, Richard became a bit of a bogeyman in the Middle East for centuries after his death. Mothers would occasionally threaten unruly children with the admonition "King Richard will get you" well into the late 19th century. Fictional Portrayals: Richard has appeared frequently in fictional works. Beyond his role in the Robin Hood legend, Richard appears in several works by Sir Walter Scott, including Ivanhoe (in which he initially adopts the pseudonym of le Noir Fainéant, meaning "The black sluggard") and The Talisman. He is also a major character in James Goldman's play The Lion in Winter. Richard has also been portrayed on film numerous times. Wallace Berry played Richard in the 1922 silent film, "Robin Hood" with Douglas Fairbanks. Cecil B. DeMille cast Henry Wilcoxon as Richard in his 1935 film "The Crusades." Ian Hunter played Richard in the 1938 film The Adventures of Robin Hood with Errol Flynn. Richard was played by George Sanders in the 1954 film King Richard and the Crusaders (loosely based on The Talisman). Anthony Hopkins played him in the film version of The Lion in Winter. Richard Harris played him in Robin and Marian (a very unromantic portrayal). Sean Connery played him in an uncredited cameo in the 1991 film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves, a role which was parodied two years later by Patrick Stewart in Mel Brooks's comedic Robin Hood: Men in Tights. Iain Glen played Richard in a brief appearance at the end of the 2005 film Kingdom of Heaven. Other actors have played Richard on film and television, including numerous adaptations of Ivanhoe and other versions of the Robin Hood legend. The 1965 Doctor Who television serial "The Crusade" is set during Richard's conflict with Saladin, and features Julian Glover as Richard. John Rhys-Davies played Richard in one episode of the 1980s television series Robin of Sherwood. Andrew Howard played Richard in a 2003 television adaptation of The Lion in Winter. Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite.
William B.
