Notizen zu dieser Person
Edward III (13 November 1312 - 21 June 1377) was King of England from 1327 until his death; he is noted for his military success and for restoring royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father, Edward II. Edward III transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe; his reign also saw vital developments in legislation and government-in particular the evolution of the English parliament-as well as the ravages of the Black Death. He is one of only six British monarchs to have ruled England or its successor kingdoms for more than fifty years. Edward was crowned at age fourteen after his father was deposed by his mother and her consort Roger Mortimer. At age seventeen he led a successful coup against Mortimer, the de facto ruler of the country, and began his personal reign. After a successful campaign in Scotland he declared himself rightful heir to the French throne in 1337, starting what would become known as the Hundred Years' War.[1] Following some initial setbacks the war went exceptionally well for England; victories at Crécy and Poitiers led to the highly favourable Treaty of Brétigny. Edward's later years, however, were marked by international failure and domestic strife, largely as a result of his inactivity and poor health. Edward III was a temperamental man but capable of unusual clemency. He was in many ways a conventional king whose main interest was warfare. Admired in his own time and for centuries after, Edward was denounced as an irresponsible adventurer by later Whig historians such as William Stubbs. This view has been challenged recently and modern historians credit him with some significant achievements.[2][3] Early life Edward was born at Windsor Castle on 13 November 1312, and was often referred to as Edward of Windsor in his early years.[4] The reign of his father, Edward II, was a particularly problematic period of English history.[5] One source of contention was the king's inactivity, and repeated failure, in the ongoing war with Scotland.[6] Another controversial issue was the king's exclusive patronage of a small group of royal favourites.[7] The birth of a male heir in 1312 temporarily improved Edward II's position in relation to the baronial opposition.[8] To bolster further the independent prestige of the young prince, the king had him created Earl of Chester at only twelve days of age. [9] In 1325, Edward II was faced with a demand from the French king, Charles IV, to perform homage for the English Duchy of Aquitaine.[10] Edward was reluctant to leave the country, as discontent was once again brewing domestically, particularly over his relationship with the favourite Hugh Despenser the Younger.[11] Instead, he had his son Edward created Earl of Aquitaine in his place and sent him to France to perform the homage.[12] The young Edward was accompanied by his mother Isabella, who was the sister of King Charles, and was meant to negotiate a peace treaty with the French.[13] While in France, however, Isabella conspired with the exiled Roger Mortimer to have the king deposed.[14] To build up diplomatic and military support for the venture, Isabella had Prince Edward engaged to the twelve-year-old Philippa of Hainault.[15] An invasion of England was launched and Edward II's forces deserted him completely. The king was forced to relinquish the throne to his son, who was crowned as Edward III on 1 February 1327.[16] It was not long before the new reign also met with other problems caused by the central position at court of Roger Mortimer, who was now the de facto ruler of England. Mortimer used his power to acquire noble estates and titles, and his unpopularity grew with the humiliating defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Stanhope Park and the ensuing Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton, signed with the Scots in 1328.[17] Also the young king came into conflict with his guardian. Mortimer knew his position in relation to the king was precarious and subjected Edward to disrespect. The tension increased after Edward and Philippa, who had married on 24 January 1328, had a son on 15 June 1330.[18] Eventually, Edward decided to take direct action against Mortimer. Aided by his close companion William Montagu and a small number of other trusted men, Edward took Mortimer by surprise at Nottingham Castle on 19 October 1330. Mortimer was executed and Edward III's personal reign began.[19] Early reign Edward III was not content with the peace agreement made in his name, but the renewal of the war with Scotland originated in private, rather than royal initiative. A group of English magnates known as The Disinherited, who had lost land in Scotland by the peace accord, staged an invasion of Scotland and won a great victory at the Battle of Dupplin Moor in 1332.[20] They attempted to install Edward Balliol as king of Scotland in David II's place, but Balliol was soon expelled and was forced to seek the help of Edward III. The English king responded by laying siege to the important border town of Berwick and defeated a large relieving army at the Battle of Halidon Hill.[21] Edward reinstated Balliol on the throne and received a substantial amount of land in southern Scotland.[22] These victories proved hard to sustain, however, as forces loyal to David II gradually regained control of the country. In 1338, Edward was forced to agree to a truce with the Scots.[23] One reason for the change of strategy towards Scotland was a growing concern for the relationship between England and France. As long as Scotland and France were in an alliance, the English were faced with the prospect of fighting a war on two fronts.[25] The French carried out raids on English coastal towns, leading to rumours in England of a full-scale French invasion.[23] In 1337, Philip VI confiscated the English king's duchy of Aquitaine and the county of Ponthieu. Instead of seeking a peaceful resolution to the conflict by paying homage to the French king, the way his father had done, Edward responded by laying claim to the French crown as the grandson of Philip IV.[26] The French, however, invoked the Salic law of succession and rejected his claim. Instead, they upheld the rights of Philip IV's nephew, King Philip VI (an agnatic descendant of the House of France), thereby setting the stage for the Hundred Years' War (see family tree below).[27] In the early stages of the war, Edward's strategy was to build alliances with other Continental princes. In 1338, Louis IV named Edward vicar-general of the Holy Roman Empire and promised his support.[28] These measures, however, produced few results; the only major military victory in this phase of the war was the English naval victory at Sluys on 24 June 1340, which secured English control of the Channel.[29] Meanwhile, the fiscal pressure on the kingdom caused by Edward's expensive alliances led to discontent at home. The regency council at home was frustrated by the mounting national debt, while the king and his commanders on the Continent were angered by the government in England's failure to provide sufficient funds.[30] To deal with the situation, Edward himself returned to England, arriving in London unannounced on 30 November 1340.[31] Finding the affairs of the realm in disorder, he purged the royal administration of a great number of ministers and judges.[32] These measures did not bring domestic stability, however, and a stand-off ensued between the king and John de Stratford, Archbishop of Canterbury. Stratford claimed that Edward had violated the laws of the land by arresting royal officers.[33] A certain level of conciliation was reached at the parliament of April 1341. Here Edward was forced to accept severe limitations to his financial and administrative freedom, in return for a grant of taxation.[34] Yet in October the same year, the king repudiated this statute and Archbishop Stratford was politically ostracised. The extraordinary circumstances of the April parliament had forced the king into submission, but under normal circumstances the powers of the king in medieval England were virtually unlimited, a fact that Edward was able to exploit.[35] Rodger called Edward III's own claim to be the "Sovereign of the Seas" into question, arguing there was hardly any Royal Navy before the reign of Henry V (1413-22). Although Rodger may have made this claim, the reality was that King John had already developed a royal fleet of galleys and had attempted to establish an administration for these ships and ones which were arrested (privately owned ships pulled into royal/national service). Henry III, his successor, continued this work. Notwithstanding the fact that he, along with his predecessor, had hoped to develop a strong and efficient naval administration, their endeavours produced one that was informal and mostly ad hoc. A formal naval administration emerged during Edward's reign which was composed of lay administrators and headed by William de Clewre, Matthew de Torksey, and John de Haytfield successively with them being titled, Clerk of the King's Ships. Sir Robert de Crull was the last to fill this position during Edward III's reign [36] and would have the longest tenure in this position.[37] It was during his tenure that Edward's naval administration would become a base for what evolved during the reigns of successors such as Henry VIII of England's Council of Marine and Navy Board and Charles I of England's Board of Admiralty. Rodger also argues that for much of the fourteenth century, the French had the upper hand, apart from Sluys in 1340 and, perhaps, off Winchelsea in 1350.[38] Yet, the French never invaded England and France's King John II died in captivity in England. There was a need for an English navy to play a role in this and to handle other matters, such as the insurrection of the Anglo-Irish lords and acts of piracy.[39] Fortunes of war By the early 1340s, it was clear that Edward's policy of alliances was too costly, and yielded too few results. The following years saw more direct involvement by English armies, including in the Breton War of Succession, but these interventions also proved fruitless at first.[40] A major change came in July 1346, when Edward staged a major offensive, sailing for Normandy with a force of 15,000 men.[41] His army sacked the city of Caen, and marched across northern France, to meet up with English forces in Flanders. It was not Edward's initial intention to engage the French army, but at Crécy, just north of the Somme, he found favourable terrain and decided to fight an army led by Philip VI.[42] On 26 August, the English army defeated a far larger French army in the Battle of Crécy.[43] Shortly after this, on 17 October, an English army defeated and captured King David II of Scotland at the Battle of Neville's Cross.[44] With his northern borders secured, Edward felt free to continue his major offensive against France, laying siege to the town of Calais. The operation was the greatest English venture of the Hundred Years' War, involving an army of 35,000 men.[45] The siege started on 4 September 1346, and lasted until the town surrendered on 3 August 1347.[46] After the fall of Calais, factors outside of Edward's control forced him to wind down the war effort. In 1348, the Black Death struck England with full force, killing a third or more of the country's population.[47] This loss of manpower led to a shortage of farm labour, and a corresponding rise in wages. The great landowners struggled with the shortage of manpower and the resulting inflation in labour cost.[48] To curb the rise in wages, the king and parliament responded with the Ordinance of Labourers in 1349, followed by the Statute of Labourers in 1351. These attempts to regulate wages could not succeed in the long run, but in the short term they were enforced with great vigour.[49] All in all, the plague did not lead to a full-scale breakdown of government and society, and recovery was remarkably swift.[50] This was to a large extent thanks to the competent leadership of royal administrators such as Treasurer William de Shareshull and Chief Justice William Edington.[51] It was not until the mid-1350s that military operations on the Continent were resumed on a large scale.[52] In 1356, Edward's oldest son, Edward, the Black Prince, won an important victory in the Battle of Poitiers. The greatly outnumbered English forces not only routed the French, but captured the French king, John II.[53] After a succession of victories, the English held great possessions in France, the French king was in English custody, and the French central government had almost totally collapsed.[54] There has been a historical debate as to whether Edward's claim to the French crown originally was genuine, or if it was simply a political ploy meant to put pressure on the French government.[55] Regardless of the original intent, the stated claim now seemed to be within reach. Yet a campaign in 1359, meant to complete the undertaking, was inconclusive.[56] In 1360, therefore, Edward accepted the Treaty of Brétigny, whereby he renounced his claims to the French throne, but secured his extended French possessions in full sovereignty.[57] Later reign While Edward's early reign had been energetic and successful, his later years were marked by inertia, military failure and political strife. The day-to-day affairs of the state had less appeal to Edward than military campaigning, so during the 1360s Edward increasingly relied on the help of his subordinates, in particular William Wykeham.[58] A relative upstart, Wykeham was made Keeper of the Privy Seal in 1363 and Chancellor in 1367, though due to political difficulties connected with his inexperience, the Parliament forced him to resign the chancellorship in 1371.[59] Compounding Edward's difficulties were the deaths of his most trusted men, some from the 1361-62 recurrence of the plague. William Montague, Earl of Salisbury, Edward's companion in the 1330 coup, died as early as 1344. William de Clinton, who had also been with the king at Nottingham, died in 1354. One of the earls created in 1337, William de Bohun, Earl of Northampton, died in 1360, and the next year Henry of Grosmont, perhaps the greatest of Edward's captains, succumbed to what was probably plague.[60] Their deaths left the majority of the magnates younger and more naturally aligned to the princes than to the king himself.[61] Increasingly, Edward began to rely on his sons for the leadership of military operations. The king's second son, Lionel of Antwerp, attempted to subdue by force the largely autonomous Anglo-Irish lords in Ireland. The venture failed, and the only lasting mark he left were the suppressive Statutes of Kilkenny in 1366.[62] In France, meanwhile, the decade following the Treaty of Brétigny was one of relative tranquillity, but on 8 April 1364 John II died in captivity in England, after unsuccessfully trying to raise his own ransom at home.[63] He was followed by the vigorous Charles V, who enlisted the help of the capable Constable Bertrand du Guesclin.[64] In 1369, the French war started anew, and Edward's younger son John of Gaunt was given the responsibility of a military campaign. The effort failed, and with the Treaty of Bruges in 1375, the great English possessions in France were reduced to only the coastal towns of Calais, Bordeaux, and Bayonne.[65] Military failure abroad, and the associated fiscal pressure of constant campaigns, led to political discontent at home. The problems came to a head in the parliament of 1376, the so-called Good Parliament. The parliament was called to grant taxation, but the House of Commons took the opportunity to address specific grievances. In particular, criticism was directed at some of the king's closest advisors. Chamberlain William Latimer and Steward of the Household John Neville were dismissed from their positions.[66] Edward's mistress, Alice Perrers, who was seen to hold far too much power over the ageing king, was banished from court.[67][68] Yet the real adversary of the Commons, supported by powerful men such as Wykeham and Edmund de Mortimer, Earl of March, was John of Gaunt. Both the king and the Black Prince were by this time incapacitated by illness, leaving Gaunt in virtual control of government.[69] Gaunt was forced to give in to the demands of parliament, but at its next convocation, in 1377, most of the achievements of the Good Parliament were reversed.[70] Edward himself, however, did not have much to do with any of this; after around 1375 he played a limited role in the government of the realm. Around 29 September 1376 he fell ill with a large abscess. After a brief period of recovery in February 1377, the king died of a stroke at Sheen on 21 June.[71] He was succeeded by his ten-year-old grandson, King Richard II, son of the Black Prince, since the Black Prince himself had died on 8 June 1376.[72] Achievements of the reign Legislation The middle years of Edward's reign were a period of significant legislative activity. Perhaps the best-known piece of legislation was the Statute of Labourers of 1351, which addressed the labour shortage problem caused by the Black Death. The statute fixed wages at their pre-plague level and checked peasant mobility by asserting that lords had first claim on their men's services. In spite of concerted efforts to uphold the statute, it eventually failed due to competition among landowners for labour.[73] The law has been described as an attempt "to legislate against the law of supply and demand", which made it doomed to fail.[74] Nevertheless, the labour shortage had created a community of interest between the smaller landowners of the House of Commons and the greater landowners of the House of Lords. The resulting measures angered the peasants, leading to the Peasants' Revolt of 1381.[75] The reign of Edward III coincided with the so-called Babylonian Captivity of the papacy at Avignon. During the wars with France, opposition emerged in England against perceived injustices by a papacy largely controlled by the French crown.[76] Papal taxation of the English Church was suspected to be financing the nation's enemies, while the practice of provisions - the Pope providing benefices for clerics - caused resentment in the English population. The statutes of Provisors and Praemunire, of 1350 and 1353 respectively, aimed to amend this by banning papal benefices, as well as limiting the power of the papal court over English subjects.[77] The statutes did not, however, sever the ties between the king and the Pope, who were equally dependent upon each other.[78] Other legislation of importance includes the Treason Act of 1351. It was precisely the harmony of the reign that allowed a consensus on the definition of this controversial crime.[79] Yet the most significant legal reform was probably that concerning the Justices of the Peace. This institution began before the reign of Edward III but, by 1350, the justices had been given the power not only to investigate crimes and make arrests, but also to try cases, including those of felony.[80] With this, an enduring fixture in the administration of local English justice had been created.[81] Parliament and taxation Parliament as a representative institution was already well established by the time of Edward III, but the reign was nevertheless central to its development.[82] During this period, membership in the English baronage, formerly a somewhat indistinct group, became restricted to those who received a personal summons to parliament.[83] This happened as parliament gradually developed into a bicameral institution, composed of a House of Lords and a House of Commons.[84] Yet it was not in the upper, but in the lower house that the greatest changes took place, with the expanding political role of the Commons. Informative is the Good Parliament, where the Commons for the first time - albeit with noble support - were responsible for precipitating a political crisis.[85] In the process, both the procedure of impeachment and the office of the Speaker were created.[86] Even though the political gains were of only temporary duration, this parliament represented a watershed in English political history. The political influence of the Commons originally lay in their right to grant taxes.[87] The financial demands of the Hundred Years' War were enormous, and the king and his ministers tried different methods of covering the expenses. The king had a steady income from crown lands, and could also take up substantial loans from Italian and domestic financiers.[88] To finance warfare on Edward III's scale, however, the king had to resort to taxation of his subjects. Taxation took two primary forms: levy and customs. The levy was a grant of a proportion of all moveable property, normally a tenth for towns and a fifteenth for farmland. This could produce large sums of money, but each such levy had to be approved by parliament, and the king had to prove the necessity.[89] The customs therefore provided a welcome supplement, as a steady and reliable source of income. An "ancient duty" on the export of wool had existed since 1275. Edward I had tried to introduce an additional duty on wool, but this unpopular maltolt, or "unjust exaction", was soon abandoned.[90] Then, from 1336 onwards, a series of schemes aimed at increasing royal revenues from wool export were introduced. After some initial problems and discontent, it was agreed through the Ordinance of the Staple of 1353 that the new customs should be approved by parliament, though in reality they became permanent.[91] Through the steady taxation of Edward III's reign, parliament - and in particular the Commons - gained political influence. A consensus emerged that in order for a tax to be just, the king had to prove its necessity, it had to be granted by the community of the realm, and it had to be to the benefit of that community.[92] In addition to imposing taxes, parliament would also present petitions for redress of grievances to the king, most often concerning misgovernment by royal officials.[93] This way the system was beneficial for both parties. Through this process the commons, and the community they represented, became increasingly politically aware, and the foundation was laid for the particular English brand of constitutional monarchy.[94] Chivalry and national identity Central to Edward III's policy was reliance on the higher nobility for purposes of war and administration. While his father had regularly been in conflict with a great portion of his peerage, Edward III successfully created a spirit of camaraderie between himself and his greatest subjects.[95] Both Edward I and Edward II had been limited in their policy towards the nobility, allowing the creation of few new peerages during the sixty years preceding Edward III's reign.[96] The young king reversed this trend when, in 1337, as a preparation for the imminent war, he created six new earls on the same day.[97] At the same time, Edward expanded the ranks of the peerage upwards, by introducing the new title of duke for close relatives of the king.[98] Furthermore, Edward bolstered the sense of community within this group by the creation of the Order of the Garter, probably in 1348. A plan from 1344 to revive the Round Table of King Arthur never came to fruition, but the new order carried connotations from this legend by the circular shape of the garter.[99] Polydore Vergil tells of how the young Joan of Kent, Countess of Salisbury - allegedly the king's favourite at the time - accidentally dropped her garter at a ball at Calais. King Edward responded to the ensuing ridicule of the crowd by tying the garter around his own knee with the words honi soit qui mal y pense - shame on him who thinks ill of it.[100] This reinforcement of the aristocracy must be seen in conjunction with the war in France, as must the emerging sense of national identity.[95] Just as the war with Scotland had done, the fear of a French invasion helped strengthen a sense of national unity, and nationalise the aristocracy that had been largely Anglo-French since the Norman conquest. Since the time of Edward I, popular myth suggested that the French planned to extinguish the English language, and as his grandfather had done, Edward III made the most of this scare.[101] As a result, the English language experienced a strong revival; in 1362, a Statute of Pleading ordered the English language to be used in law courts,[102] and the year after, Parliament was for the first time opened in English.[103] At the same time, the vernacular saw a revival as a literary language, through the works of William Langland, John Gower and especially The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer.[104] Yet the extent of this Anglicisation must not be exaggerated. The statute of 1362 was in fact written in the French language and had little immediate effect, and parliament was opened in that language as late as 1377.[105] The Order of the Garter, though a distinctly English institution, included also foreign members such as John V, Duke of Brittany and Sir Robert of Namur.[106][107] Edward III - himself bilingual - viewed himself as legitimate king of both England and France, and could not show preferential treatment for one part of his domains over another. Assessment and character Edward III enjoyed unprecedented popularity in his own lifetime, and even the troubles of his later reign were never blamed directly on the king himself.[108] Edward's contemporary Jean Froissart wrote in his Chronicles that "His like had not been seen since the days of King Arthur".[71] This view persisted for a while but, with time, the image of the king changed. The Whig historians of a later age preferred constitutional reform to foreign conquest and discredited Edward for ignoring his responsibilities to his own nation. In the words of Bishop Stubbs: Edward III was not a statesman, though he possessed some qualifications which might have made him a successful one. He was a warrior; ambitious, unscrupulous, selfish, extravagant and ostentatious. His obligations as a king sat very lightly on him. He felt himself bound by no special duty, either to maintain the theory of royal supremacy or to follow a policy which would benefit his people. Like Richard I, he valued England primarily as a source of supplies. William Stubbs, The Constitutional History of England[109] Influential as Stubbs was, it was long before this view was challenged. In a 1960 article, titled "Edward III and the Historians", May McKisack pointed out the teleological nature of Stubbs' judgement. A medieval king could not be expected to work towards the future ideal of a parliamentary monarchy; rather his role was a pragmatic one-to maintain order and solve problems as they arose. At this, Edward III excelled.[110] Edward had also been accused of endowing his younger sons too liberally and thereby promoting dynastic strife culminating in the Wars of the Roses. This claim was rejected by K.B. McFarlane, who argued that this was not only the common policy of the age, but also the best.[111] Later biographers of the king such as Mark Ormrod and Ian Mortimer have followed this historiographical trend. However, the older negative view has not completely disappeared; as recently as 2001, Norman Cantor described Edward III as an "avaricious and sadistic thug" and a "destructive and merciless force."[112] From what is known of Edward's character, he could be impulsive and temperamental, as was seen by his actions against Stratford and the ministers in 1340/41.[113] At the same time, he was well known for his clemency; Mortimer's grandson was not only absolved, but came to play an important part in the French wars, and was eventually made a Knight of the Garter.[114] Both in his religious views and his interests, Edward was a conventional man. His favourite pursuit was the art of war and, in this, he conformed to the medieval notion of good kingship.[115][116] As a warrior he was so successful that one modern military historian has described him as the greatest general in English history.[117] He seems to have been unusually devoted to his wife, Queen Philippa. Much has been made of Edward's sexual licentiousness, but there is no evidence of any infidelity on the king's part before Alice Perrers became his lover, and by that time the queen was already terminally ill.[118][119] This devotion extended to the rest of the family as well; in contrast to so many of his predecessors, Edward never experienced opposition from any of his five adult sons.[120] Issue Philippa and Edward had fourteen children,[15] including five sons who lived into adulthood and the rivalry of whose numerous descendants would, in the fifteenth century, bring about the long-running and bloody dynastic wars known as the Wars of the Roses. Edward, the Black Prince (1330-1376) Isabella of England (1332-1379) Joan of England (1335-1348) William of Hatfield (16 February - 8 July 1337) Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence (1338-1368) John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (1340-1399) Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York (1341-1402) Blanche (1342-1342) Mary (1344-1362) Margaret (1346-1361) Thomas of Windsor (1347-1348) William of Windsor (24 June 1348 - 5 September 1348) Joan, born 1351 Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester (1355-1397) Fictional Portrayals Edward III was portrayed by Michael Hordern in the film The Dark Avenger. In Mel Gibson's 1995 film Braveheart William Wallace is implied to be the real father of Edward III, despite Wallace's death many years before Edward's birth.[124] In World Without End Edward III is portrayed by Blake Ritson.[125] Footnotes Jump up ^ Edward first styled himself "King of France" in 1337, though he did not officially assume the title until 1340; Prestwich (2005), pp. 307-8. Jump up ^ Mortimer (2006), p. 1. Jump up ^ Omrod (2012). Jump up ^ Mortimer (2006), p. 21. Jump up ^ For an account of the political conflicts of Edward II's early years, see: Maddicot, J.R. (1970). Thomas of Lancaster, 1307-1322. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-821837-0. OCLC 132766. Jump up ^ Tuck (1985), p. 52. Jump up ^ Prestwich (1980), p. 80. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), p. 189. Jump up ^ Mortimer (2006), p. 23. Jump up ^ Tuck (1985), p. 88. Jump up ^ For an account of Edward II's later years, see: Fryde, N.M. (1979). The tyranny and fall of Edward II, 1321-1326. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54806-3. Jump up ^ Mortimer (2006), p. 39. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), p. 213. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), p. 216. Jump up ^ Mortimer (2006), p. 46. Jump up ^ Mortimer (2006), p. 54. The later fate of Edward II has been a source of much scholarly debate. For a summary of the evidence, see: Mortimer (2006), pp. 405-10 Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), pp. 98-100. Jump up ^ Mortimer (2006), pp. 67, 81. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), pp. 223-4. Jump up ^ Preswich (2205), p. 244. Jump up ^ DeVries (1996), pp. 114-5. Jump up ^ Preswich (2205), pp. 244-5. ^ Jump up to: a b Ormrod (1990), p. 21. Jump up ^ Maclagan, Michael; Louda, Jirí (1981). Line of Succession: Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe. London: Macdonald & Co. p. 17. ISBN 0-85613-276-4. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), pp. 117-9. Jump up ^ Edward did not officially assume the title "King of England and France" until 1340; Ormrod (1990), pp. 21-2. Jump up ^ Sumption (1999), p. 106. Jump up ^ Rogers (2000), p. 155. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), pp. 128-9. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), pp. 273-5. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), p. 168. Jump up ^ Fryde (1975), pp. 149-61. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), pp. 275-6. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), pp. 174-5. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1990), p. 29. Jump up ^ Susan Rose. The Navy of the Lancastrian Kings. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1982. p. 7 ISBN 0049421751 Jump up ^ James Sherborne. War, Politics and Culture in 14th Century England. London: The Hambledon Press, 1994. p. 32 ISBN 1-85285-086-8 Jump up ^ N. A. M. Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea (1997) p 99 Jump up ^ McKisack. p. 509 and other pages Jump up ^ Mortimer (2006), p. 205. The main exception was Henry of Lancaster's victory in the Battle of Auberoche in 1345; Fowler (1969), pp. 58-9. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), p. 132. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), pp. 316-8. Jump up ^ DeVries (1996), pp. 155-76. Jump up ^ Waugh (1991), p. 17. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1990), p. 31. Jump up ^ Sumption (1999), pp. 537, 581. Jump up ^ For more on the debate over mortality rates, see: Hatcher, John (1977). Plague, Population and the English Economy, 1348-1530. London: Macmillan. pp. 11-20. ISBN 0-333-21293-2. Jump up ^ Waugh (1991), p. 109. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), pp. 547-8. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), p. 553. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1986), pp. 175-88. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), p. 550. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), p. 139. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), pp. 139-40. Jump up ^ For a summary of the debate, see: Prestwich (2005), pp. 307-10. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), p. 326. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1990), pp. 39-40. Jump up ^ For more on Wykeham, see: Davis, Virginia (2007). William Wykeham. Hambledon Continuum. ISBN 978-1-84725-172-5. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1990), pp. 90-4. Jump up ^ Fowler (1969), pp. 217-8. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1990), pp. 127-8. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), p. 231. Jump up ^ Tuck (1985), p. 138. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1990), p. 27. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), p. 145. Jump up ^ Holmes (1975), p. 66. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1990), pp. 35-7 Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), pp. 387-94. Jump up ^ Harriss (2006), p. 440. Jump up ^ The earlier belief that Gaunt "packed" the 1377 parliament with his own supporters is no longer widely held. See: Wedgwood, Josiah C. (1930). "John of Gaunt and the Packing of Parliament". The English Historical Review XLV (CLXXX): 623-625. doi:10.1093/ehr/XLV.CLXXX.623. ISSN 0013-8266. ^ Jump up to: a b Ormrod (1990), p. 52. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), pp. 392, 397. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), p. 335. Jump up ^ Hanawalt, Barbara A. (9 February 1989). The ties that bound: peasant families in medieval England. Oxford University Press US. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-19-504564-2. Jump up ^ Prestwich, M.C. (1983). "Parliament and the community of the realm in the fourteenth century". In Cosgrove, Art; McGuire, J.I. (eds.). Parliament & Community: Papers Read before the Irish Conference of Historians, Dublin 27-30 May 1981. Appletree Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-904651-93-5. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), p. 272. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), pp. 280-1. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1990), pp. 140-3. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), p. 257. Jump up ^ The pioneering study of this process is: Putnam, B.H. (1929). "The Transformation of the Keepers of the Peace into the Justices of the Peace 1327-1380". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 12: pp. 19-48. doi:10.2307/3678675. ISSN 0080-4401. Jump up ^ Musson and Omrod (1999), pp. 50-4. Jump up ^ Harriss (2006), p. 66. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), pp. 186-7. Jump up ^ Harriss (2006), p. 67. Jump up ^ Prestwich (1980), p. 288. Jump up ^ Fritze, Ronald H.; Robison, William Baxter (2002). Historical dictionary of late medieval England, 1272-1485. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 409. ISBN 978-0-313-29124-1. Retrieved 8 May 2011. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1990), pp. 60-1. Jump up ^ Brown (1989), pp. 80-4. Jump up ^ Brown (1989), pp. 70-1. Jump up ^ Harriss (1975), pp. 57, 69. Jump up ^ Brown (1989), pp. 67-9, 226-8. Jump up ^ Harriss (1975), p. 509. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), pp. 282-3. Jump up ^ Harriss (1975), pp. 509-17. ^ Jump up to: a b Ormrod (1990), pp. 114-5. Jump up ^ Given-Wilson (1996), pp. 29-31. Jump up ^ Given-Wilson (1996), pp. 35-6. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), p. 364. Jump up ^ Tuck (1985), p. 133. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), pp. 251-2. Jump up ^ Prestwich (1980), pp. 209-10. Jump up ^ For the original text, see: "Statute of Pleading (1362)". languageandlaw.org. Loyola Law School. Retrieved 8 May 2011. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), p. 524. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), pp. 526-32. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), p. 556. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), p. 253. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), p. 554. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1990), p. 51. Jump up ^ Stubbs, William (1880). The Constitutional History of England ii. Oxford: Clarendon. p. 3. Jump up ^ McKisack (1960), pp. 4-5. Jump up ^ McFarlane, K.B. (1981). England in the Fifteenth Century: Collected Essays. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 238. ISBN 978-0-907628-01-9. Retrieved 8 May 2011. Jump up ^ Cantor, Norman (2002). In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World it Made. HarperCollins. pp. 37, 39. ISBN 0-06-001434-2. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), p. 289. Jump up ^ McKisack (1959), p. 255. Jump up ^ Ormrod (1990), p. 56. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), pp. 290-1. Jump up ^ Rogers, C.J. (2002). "England's Greatest General". MHQ: the Quarterly Journal of Military History 14 (4): 34-45. Jump up ^ Mortimer (2006), pp. 400-1. Jump up ^ Prestwich (1980), p. 241. Jump up ^ Prestwich (2005), p. 290. Jump up ^ The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III Father of the English Nation, Ian Mortimer, Vintage Books London, 2006 Jump up ^ http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=8501989 ^ Jump up to: a b Cawley, Charles. "Medieval Lands Project: Kings of England, 1066-1603". Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. Retrieved 4 January 2012. Jump up ^ Ewan, pp1219-21. Jump up ^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1878805/?ref_=sr_2 References Allmand, Christopher (1988). The Hundred Years War: England and France at War c.1300-c.1450. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-26499-5. Ayton, Andrew (1994). Knights and Warhorses: Military Service and the English Aristocracy Under Edward III. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-568-5. Barrow, G. W. S. (1965). Robert Bruce and the Community of the Realm of Scotland. London: Eyre & Spottiswoode. Bothwell, J. (1997). "Edward III and the "New Nobility": largesse and limitation in fourteenth-century England". English Historical Review 112. Bothwell, J. (2001). The Age of Edward III. York: The Boydell Press. ISBN 1-903153-06-9. Bothwell, J. (1998). "The management of position: Alice Perrers, Edward III, and the creation of a landed estates, 1362-1377". Journal of Medieval History 24 (1): 31-51. doi:10.1016/S0304-4181(97)00017-1. ISSN 0304-4181. Bothwell, J. (2004). Edward III and the English Peerage: Royal Patronage, Social Mobility and Political Control in Fourteenth-Century England. Ipswich: Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-047-7. Bothwell, J. (2008). "The more things change: Isabella and Mortimer, Edward III and the painful delay of a royal majority". In Beem, Charles (ed.). The Royal Minorities of Medieval and Early Modern England. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 67-102. ISBN 0-230-60866-3. Brown, A.L. (1989). The Governance of Late Medieval England 1272-1461. London: Edward Arnold. ISBN 0-8047-1730-3. Curry, Anne (1993). The Hundred Years' War. Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-53175-2. Graham Cushway (2011). Edward III and the war at sea: the English Navy, 1327-1377. Boydell. ISBN 978-1-84383-621-6. Retrieved 11 February 2012. DeVries, Kelly (1996). Infantry Warfare in the Early Fourteenth Century: Discipline, Tactics, and Technology. Woodbridge: Boydell. ISBN 0-85115-567-7. Ewan, Elizabeth. "Braveheart." American Historical Review. Vol. 100, No. 4. October 1995. Fowler, K.H. (1969). The King's Lieutenant: Henry of Grosmont, First Duke of Lancaster, 1310-1361. London: Elek. ISBN 0-236-30812-2. Fryde, E. B. (1983). Studies in medieval trade and finance. London: Hambledon Press. ISBN 0-907628-10-9. Fryde, N.M. (1975). "Edward III's removal of his ministers and judges, 1340-1". Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research. xlviii (118): 149-61. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2281.1975.tb00747.x. Given-Wilson, Chris (1986). The Royal Household and the King's Affinity: Service, Politics, and Finance in England, 1360-1413. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03570-5. Given-Wilson, Chris (1996). The English Nobility in the Late Middle Ages. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14883-9. Goodman, Anthony (1992). John of Gaunt: the exercise of princely power in fourteenth-century Europe. Longman. ISBN 978-0-582-09813-8. Retrieved 30 April 2011. Harriss, G.L. (1975). King, Parliament and Public Finance in Medieval England to 1369. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-822435-4. Harriss, G.L. (2006). Shaping the Nation: England 1360-1461. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921119-7. Retrieved 8 May 2011. Hewitt, H.J. (2005). The Organisation of War under Edward III. Pen and Sword. ISBN 1-84415-231-6. Holmes, George (1957). The Estates of The Higher Nobility in Fourteenth Century England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Holmes, George (1975). The Good Parliament. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822446-4. McKisack, M. (1959). The Fourteenth Century: 1307-1399. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-821712-9. McKisack, M. (1960). "Edward III and the historians". History 45 (153): 1. doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1960.tb02288.x. Maddicott, John (2010). The Origins of the English Parliament, 924-1327. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-958550-4. Morgan, D.A.L. (1997). "The political after-life of Edward III: the apotheosis of a warmonger". English Historical Review 112 (448): 856-81. doi:10.1093/EHR/CXII.448.856. Mortimer, Ian (2006). The Perfect King: The Life of Edward III, Father of the English Nation. London: Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-07301-X. Munby, Julian; Barber, Richard W.; Brown, Richard (2007). Edward III's Round Table at Windsor: The House of the Round Table and the Windsor Festival of 1344. Arthurian Studies. Ipswich: Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-313-1. Musson, A. and W.A. Omrod (1999). The Evolution of English Justice. Basingstoke: Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-67670-X. Nicholson, Ranald (1965). Edward III and the Scots: The Formative Years of a Military Career, 1327-1335. London: Oxford University Press. Ormrod, W. Mark (2012). Edward III. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-11910-7.; 752pp Ormrod, Mark (1986). "The English government and the Black Death of 1348-49". In Mark Ormrod. England in the Fourteenth Century. Woodbridge: Boydell. pp. 175-88. ISBN 0-85115-448-4. Ormrod, W.M. (1987a). "Edward III and the recovery of royal authority in England, 1340-60". History 72 (234): 4. doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1987.tb01455.x. Ormrod, W.M. (1987b). "Edward III and his family". Journal of British Studies 26 (4): 398. doi:10.1086/385897. Ormrod, W. M. (2005-02) [1990]. Edward III. Tempus. ISBN 978-0-7524-3320-2. Ormrod, W.M. (1994). "England, Normandy and the beginnings of the hundred years war, 1259-1360". In Bates, David; Curry, Anne (eds.). England and Normandy in the Middle Ages. London: Hambledon. pp. 197-213. ISBN 978-1-85285-083-8. Retrieved 30 April 2011. Ormrod, W.M. (2006). "Edward III (1312-1377)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Retrieved 2006-05-31. Prestwich, M.C. (1980). The Three Edwards: War and State in England 1272-1377. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-77730-0. Prestwich, M.C. (2005). Plantagenet England: 1225-1360. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-822844-9. Rogers, C.J. (ed.) (1999). The Wars of Edward III: Sources and Interpretations. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-646-0. Rogers, C.J. (2000). War Cruel and Sharp: English Strategy under Edward III, 1327-1360. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-804-8. Richardson, H.G. and G.O. Sayles (1981). The English Parliament in the Middle Ages. London: Hambledon Press. ISBN 0-9506882-1-5. Sumption, Jonathan (1999). Trial by Battle (The Hundred Years War I). London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-20095-8. Sumption, Jonathan (2001). Trial by Fire (The Hundred Years War II). London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-20737-5. Tuck, Anthony (1985). Crown and Nobility 1272-1461: Political Conflict in Late Medieval England. London: Fontana. ISBN 0-00-686084-2. Verduyn, Anthony (1993). "The Politics of Law and Order during the Early Years of Edward III". English Historical Review. CVIII (CCCCXXIX): 842-867. doi:10.1093/ehr/CVIII.CCCCXXIX.842. ISSN 0013-8266. Vale, J. (1982). Edward III and Chivalry: Chivalric Society and its Context, 1270-1350. Woodbridge: Boydell Press. ISBN 0-85115-170-1. Waugh, S.L. (1991). England in the Reign of Edward III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-31090-3. Ziegler, Phillip (1969). The Black Death. London: Collins. ISBN 0-00-211085-7. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Another version: Edward III Plantagenet, Edward of Windsor, King of England from 1327 to 1377, who led England into the Hundred Years' War with France. The descendants of his seven sons and five daughters contested the throne for generations, climaxing in the Wars of the Roses (1455-85). The eldest son of Edward II and Isabella of France, Edward III was summoned to Parliament as earl of Chester (1320) and was made duke of Aquitaine (1325), but, contrary to tradition, he never received the title of prince of Wales. Edward III grew up amid struggles between his father and a number of barons who were attempting to limit the king's power and to strengthen their own role in governing England. His mother, repelled by her husband's treatment of the nobles and disaffected by the confiscation of her English estates by his supporters, played an important role in this conflict. In 1325 she left England to return to France to intervene in the dispute between her brother, Charles IV of France, and her husband over the latter's French possessions, Guyenne, Gascony, and Ponthieu. She was successful; the land was secured for England on condition that the English king pay homage to Charles. This was performed on the King's behalf by his young son. The heir apparent was secure at his mother's side. With Roger Mortimer, an influential baron who had escaped to France in 1323 and had become her lover, Isabella now began preparations to invade England to depose her husband. To raise funds for this enterprise, Edward III was betrothed to Philippa, daughter of William, count of Hainaut and Holland. Within five months of their invasion of England, the Queen and the nobles, who had much popular support, overpowered the King's forces. Edward II, charged with incompetence and breaking his coronation oath, was forced to resign, and on Jan. 29, 1327, Edward III, aged 15, was crowned king of England. During the next four years Isabella and Mortimer governed in his name, though nominally his guardian was Henry, earl of Lancaster. In the summer of 1327 he took part in an abortive campaign against the Scots, which resulted in the Treaty of Northampton (1328), making Scotland an independent realm. Edward was deeply troubled by the settlement and signed it only after much persuasion by Isabella and Mortimer. He married Philippa at York on Jan. 24, 1328. Soon afterward, Edward made a successful effort to throw off his degrading dependence on his mother and Mortimer. While a council was being held at Nottingham, he entered the castle by night, through a subterranean passage, took Mortimer prisoner, and had him executed (November 1330). Edward had discreetly ignored his mother's liaison with Mortimer and treated her with every respect, but her political influence was at an end. Edward III now began to rule as well as to reign. Young, ardent, and active, he sought to remake England into the powerful nation it had been under Edward I. He still resented the concession of independence made to Scotland by the Treaty of Northampton; and the death of Robert I, the Bruce, king of Scotland, in 1329 gave him a chance of retrieving his position. The new king of Scots, his brother-in-law, David II, was a mere boy, and Edward took advantage of his weakness to aid the Scottish barons who had been exiled by Bruce to place their leader, Edward Balliol, on the Scottish throne. David II fled to France, but Balliol was despised as a puppet of the English king, and David returned in 1341. During the 1330s England gradually drifted into a state of hostility with France, for which the most obvious reason was the dispute over English rule in Gascony. Contributory causes were France's new king Philip VI's support of the Scots, Edward's alliance with the Flemish cities-then on bad terms with their French overlord-and the revival, in 1337, of Edward's claim, first made in 1328, to the French crown. Edward twice attempted to invade France from the north (1339, 1340), but the only result of his campaigns was to reduce him to bankruptcy. In January 1340 he assumed the title of king of France. At first he may have done this to gratify the Flemings, whose scruples in fighting the French king disappeared when they persuaded themselves that Edward was the rightful king of France. But his pretensions to the French crown gradually became more important, and the persistence with which he and his successors urged them made stable peace impossible for more than a century. This was the struggle famous in history as the Hundred Years' War. Until 1801 every English king also called himself king of France. Edward was present in person at the great naval battle off the Flemish city of Sluis in June 1340, in which he all but destroyed the French navy. Despite this victory his resources were exhausted by his land campaign, and he was forced to make a truce (which was broken two years later) and return to England. During the years after 1342 he spent much time and money in rebuilding Windsor Castle and instituting the Order of the Garter, which became Britain's highest order of knighthood. A new phase of the French war began when Edward landed in Normandy in July 1346, accompanied by his eldest son, Prince Edward, later known as the Black Prince (born 1330). At first the King showed some lack of strategic purpose, engaging in little more than a large-scale plundering raid to the gates of Paris. The campaign was made memorable by his decisive victory over the French at Crécy in Ponthieu (August 26), where he scattered the army with which Philip VI sought to cut off his retreat to the northeast. Edward laid siege to the French port of Calais in September 1346 and received its surrender in August 1347. Other victories in Gascony and Brittany, and the defeat and capture of David II at Neville's Cross near Durham (October 1346), gave further proof of Edward's power, but Calais was to be his only lasting conquest. He ejected most of its French inhabitants, colonizing the town with Englishmen and establishing there a base from which to conduct further invasions of France. Nevertheless, in the midst of his successes, want of money forced him to make a new truce in September 1347. Edward returned to England in October 1347. He celebrated his triumph by a series of splendid tournaments. In 1348 he rejected an offer to become Holy Roman emperor. In the same year the bubonic plague known as the Black Death first appeared in England and raged until the end of 1349. Its horrors hardly checked the magnificent revels of Edward's court, and neither the plague nor the truce stayed the slow course of the French war, though the fighting was indecisive and on a small scale. Edward's martial exploits during the next years were those of a gallant knight rather than of a responsible general. Although the English House of Commons was now weary of the war, efforts to make peace came to nothing, and large-scale operations began again in 1355, when Edward led an unsuccessful raid out of Calais. He harried the Lothians, part of southeastern Scotland, in the expedition famous as the Burned Candlemas (January and February 1356), and in the same year he received a formal surrender of the Kingdom of Scotland from Balliol. His exploits were, however, eclipsed by those of his son Edward, whose victory at Poitiers (Sept. 19, 1356), resulting in the capture of the French king, John II (who had succeeded Philip VI in 1350), forced the French to accept a new truce. Edward entertained his captive magnificently but forced him by the Treaty of London (1359) to surrender so much territory that the agreement was repudiated in France. In an effort to compel acceptance, Edward landed at Calais (October 28) and besieged Reims, where he planned to be crowned king of France. The strenuous resistance of the citizens frustrated this scheme, and Edward marched into Burgundy, eventually returning toward Paris. After this unsuccessful campaign he was glad to conclude preliminaries of peace at Brittany (May 8, 1360). This treaty, less onerous to France than that of London, took its final form in the Treaty of Calais, ratified by both kings (October 1360). By it, Edward renounced his claim to the French crown in return for the whole of Aquitaine, a rich area in southwestern France. The Treaty of Calais did not bring rest or prosperity to either England or France. Fresh visitations of the Black Death in England in 1361 and 1369 intensified social and economic disturbances, and desperate but not very successful efforts were made to enforce the Statute of Labourers (1351), which was intended to maintain prices and wages as they had been before the pestilence. Other famous laws enacted during the 1350s had been the Statutes of Provisors (1351) and Praemunire (1353), which reflected popular hostility against foreign clergy. These measures were frequently reenacted, and Edward formally repudiated (1366) the feudal supremacy over England still claimed by the papacy. When the French king Charles V, son of John II, repudiated the Treaty of Calais, Edward resumed the title of king of France, but he showed little of his former vigour in meeting this new trouble, leaving most of the fighting and the administration of his foreign territories to his sons Edward and John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. While they were struggling with little success against the rising tide of French national feeling, Edward's want of money made him a willing participant in the attack on the wealth and privileges of the church. Meanwhile, Aquitaine was gradually lost, Prince Edward returned to England in broken health (1371), and John of Gaunt's march through France from Calais to Bordeaux (1373) achieved nothing. Edward's final attempt to lead an army abroad himself (1372) was frustrated when contrary winds prevented his landing his troops in France. In 1375 he was glad to make a truce, which lasted until his death. By it, the only important possessions remaining in English hands were Calais, Bordeaux, Bayonne, and Brest. Edward was now sinking into his dotage. After the death of Queen Philippa in 1369 he fell entirely under the influence of his greedy mistress, Alice Perrers, while Prince Edward and John of Gaunt became the leaders of sharply divided parties in the royal court and council. John of Gaunt returned to England in April 1374 and with the help of Alice Perrers obtained the chief influence with his father, but his administration was neither honourable nor successful. At the famous so-called Good Parliament of 1376 popular indignation against John of Gaunt's ruling party came at last to a head. Alice Perrers was removed and some of Gaunt's followers were impeached. Before the Parliament had concluded its business, however, the death of Prince Edward (June 8, 1376) robbed the Commons of its strongest support. John of Gaunt regained power, and the acts of the Good Parliament had been reversed when Edward III died. Edward III possessed extraordinary vigour and energy of temperament; he was an admirable tactician and a consummate knight. His court was the most brilliant in contemporary Europe, and he was himself well fitted to be the head of the gallant knights who obtained fame in the French wars. Though his main ambition was military glory, he was not a bad ruler of England, being liberal, kindly, good-tempered, and easy of access. His need to obtain supplies for carrying on the French wars made him favourable to his subjects' petitions and contributed to the growing strength of Parliament. His weak points were his wanton breaches of good faith, his extravagance, his frivolity, and his self-indulgence. His ambition ultimately transcended his resources, and before he died even his subjects had sensed his failure. Encyclopædia Britannica 2006 Ultimate Reference Suite.
William B.
